Eubios
Dictionary
| UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "A"s A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z To find a specific term in this secition, go up to edit and choose "Find" (on this page) and do a search for the term. Photographs are a selection of participating authors present at the 8th International Tsukuba Bioethics Roundtable (TRT) in 2003. AAT: or alpha-1-antitrypsin. A protein which in deficiency causes a lung disease called emphysema, due to altered regulation of the enzyme. AAT can be produced through genetic technology in the milk of sheep, by transfer of the human gene to the sheep. One sheep made to produce AAT is called Tracy. (JA) ABM: Anti-Ballistic Missile.
ABNORMALITY: Something that is not the normal. This term is used in the debate over fetal diagnosis in the selection of embryos or fetuses that have a trait that will cause disease. (See PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS) (DM) ABORIGINAL: Original inhabitants of those parts of the world that were conquered and colonized with an overwhelming thrust aside of these populations to relatively isolated regions. These peoples are now called aboriginals, and are still found in many parts of the world: America (see AMERINDIAN), Australia (see AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL and Torres Straight Islander peoples), Guinea (Papuans), New Zealand (Maoris), etc. The natural admixture with the new settlers has been partially or totally absent, leaving a native community virtually untouched in biological and cultural terms. (See also AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL & INDIGENOUS) (GK) ABORTION: The spontaneous or deliberate termination of pregnancy before the embryo or fetus has been born, or is viable outside the womb. Should be restricted to refer to the termination of a pregnancy after implantation of the embryo into the mother. Many countries have laws restricting access of mothers to abort their fetus. Some countries prohibit abortion outright, other countries allow for a range of conditions affecting the mother, and/or for fetal indications. Spontaneous abortions in the first trimester are due in 50% of the cases to chromosomal abnormalities (26% are due to trisomies, 10% to X monosomies, and the rest to triploidies, tetraploidies, or structural abnormalities). Moral issues have been extensively discussed for several millenium without resolution. (DM, FL, GK) ABORTION ON DEMAND: Readily available legalized abortion, including abortion for personal or social reasons. (DM) ABORTION IN JUDAISM: An extremely early Jewish source, the Mishna, (Tractate Ohalot not only allows abortion, but requires it when in cases when pregnancy threatens the life of the mother. The crucial issue according to the Mishna, is that "Her life is more important than its life." Among current authorities, there is no debate about the fact that abortion is sometimes permitted and required. The only debate is over the specific circumstances in which abortion would be indicated. The more strict, inspired by the writings of the late Rabbi Moshe Feinstein, allow for abortion only when the life of the mother is in clear and certain danger. More liberal orthodox rabbis, inspired by the views of Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg, allow for abortion when the mother's life is in probable but not certain danger, when her health although not her life is in danger, when her mental although not her physical health is in danger, and even when the mother is a married woman who became pregnant because of an extra-marital relationship. (FL)
ABSTRACT
THOUGHT:
A general concept, as opposed to a thought about a particular individual.
PLATO (q.v.) and his followers believed that while an imagination
or memory about an individual object or person might contain palpable
characteristics like colour, sound, taste, smell or tactile feeling,
abstract thoughts are totally spiritual with no palpable content.
But David HUME (q.v.) claimed that he had never experienced any
such "spiritual and refined perceptions", and that all
of his thoughts were really only particular images which might nonetheless
be used in one's thinking to represent a large class of things.
(In thinking about all dogs, for example, I might already have an
image of a particular dog in my mind.) ABUSE: (Latin abuti 'to waste'). 1. the intentional or unintentional misuse of substances, drugs, equipment, programs and so forth 2. to physically or verbally attack or maltreat another; for example, an abused person is an individual who has been harmed by another person or situation. (See CHILD ABUSE; DRUG ABUSE; ELDER ABUSE) (IP)
ABUSE OF THE ELDERLY: See ELDER ABUSE. ACCELERATING PACE OF CHANGE: Technological innovation, computing power, information in scientific journals, global population, environmental change and many other aspects of modern life are undergoing rapid if not exponential increases. This rate of scientific and technological change is increasing human opportunity but also social and environmental risk. We have become used to this acceleration of history, as surprising technological advances become commonplace news items. However, many of these changes are driven by corporate motivations and are often already developed before their full ethical consequences can be properly debated. Each technological advance is progressive from the previous technologies, so there is a certain "spike" in the future beyond which prediction may be impossible. (See TECHNOLOGY, MOORE’S LAW, FUTUROLOGY, CHANGE) (MP) ACCEPTANCE: See PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE. ACCIDENT: Accidents are usually thought of as any events which were not in tended. Some accidents, like auto accidents, are bad. Others, like accidentally finding a treasure trove of gold, are good accidents. Another kind of accident would be an event which unpredictable. By "unpredictable" is not meant "hard to predict", or " i mpossible to forsee given current knowledge or methods". What is meant is an event which even God, or someone with perfect knowledge of all preconditions and scientific laws, would not have been able to predict. Some people think that events of the kin d which are studied in mathematical theories of chaos are accidental in this sense. But they are not, because chaotic systems are perfectly deterministic and predictable by means of mathematical functions. These functions are "non-linear", however. Whet h er or not an event is "accidental" is probably only a function of our ignorance. If we know the causes of an event, we say that it was determined. If we are ignorant of the causes, we call it "accidental". (FL) ACCOUNTABLE: Emphasized liability for something of value either contractually or because of one’s position of responsibility (see ACCOUNTABILITY, RESPONSIBLE) (IP) ACCOUNTABILITY: Responsibility for explaining or justifying one's conduct to the public or to one's superiors. Social responsibility includes the obligations of an individual or institution to society. (see RESPONSIBLE) (DM)
ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh): a major and widely distributed peripheral and brain neurotransmitter. ACh, first synthesized in 1867, is a cholinergic neurotransmitter with the primary function mediating synaptic activity of the nervous system and skeletal muscles. ACh is rapidly degraded by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which prevents accumulation of the neurotransmitter. Naturally occurring ACh agonists include pilocarpine, muscarine (mushrooms) and arecoline (betel nuts). Symptoms of intoxication include salivation, nausea, vomiting, headache, visual disturbances, diarrhea, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, shock and possibly death. The best known antagonist is atropine but there is also scopolamine and related belladonna alkaloids, which are found in plants such as deadly nightshade. The ACh antagonists cause dryness of the mouth, increased heart rate, dilated pupils, difficulty swallowing, atazia, restlessness, hallucinations and coma. A number of insecticides and nerve gases block AChE which results in elevated levels of ACh that can be fatal; hence the use of atropine to contract these effects. (See Brain Neurotransmitters; TOXICOLOGY; DOPAMINE; POISON HEMLOCK). (SG2) ACF: Australian Conservation Foundation. ACGT: UK Advisory Committee on Genetic Testing, United Kingdom. It terms of reference are (1) to provide advice to Ministers on developments in testing for genetic disorders; (2) to advise on testing individuals for genetic disorders taking account of ethical, social and scientific aspects; and (3) to establish requirements, especially in respect of efficacy and product information, to be met by manufacturers and suppliers of genetic tests. (JA)
ACHIEVEMENT: The successful completion of tasks, plans and responsibilities, or other accomplishments whether from inspiration, heroism or hard work. Achievements may be assigned by the self or motivated by a teacher, and the goals realized may be personal or professional. The achievements of people are commonly compared by society using age-related tests in school, and experience-related tests in the workplace. (MP) ACID: 1. A compound that yields hydrogen ions (H+) when dissociated in solution, reacts with bases to form salts and tastes sour due to its low pH value 2. Street slang for the hallucinogenic mood-altering drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), for example, "to drop acid" meaning to take LSD. (See ACID SOILS, LSD) (IP+MP) ACNFP: Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes of GM Food. ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME: see AIDS. ACT: Advanced Cell Technology is a biotechnology organization and is located in Massachusetts in USA. (JA). ACT CONSEQUENTIALISM: See UTILITARIANISM. ACT OF GOD: See ACT OF NATURE. ACT OF NATURE: a misadventure or casualty which is said to be caused by an 'Act of God'; that is, occasioned exclusively by forces of nature without the intervention of any human agency. An act of nature may be any accident produced by any physical force such as lighting strikes, tempests, perils of the seas, tornados, earthquakes etc. (See ACT OF PROVIDENCE) (IP) ACT OF PARLIAMENT: a statute or law made by the sovereign with the advice and consent of those assembled in parliament. Acts of parliament form the written laws of the nation and are of three kinds: public, local or special, private or personal. The validity of a statute cannot be questioned in court. (IP) ACT OF PROVIDENCE: an uncontrollable accident against which ordinary experience or foresight could not guard. (See ACT OF NATURE) (IP) ACT UTILITARIANISM: See UTILITARIANISM. ACTIVE EUGENICS: See EUGENICS. ACTIVE EUTHANASIA: See EUTHANASIA. ACTIVISM: Self-initiated action and activity towards an ideological, political or environmental cause. Democratic countries encourage freedom of expression, and ‘protest’ may include petitions, public marches, civil disobedience and media attention. ‘Direct action’ is action outside the normal procedural system. There is opportunity for official activism from within charities, non-profit and non-government organizations. Workers’ activism may include mass refusals to work - the strike or industrial action. Creatively attracting the media to an issue is one method used by social and environmental activists - companies will often change destructive practices once exposed to the camera spotlight. Appropriating the power of media to a cause has been called ‘culture jamming’. The internet has created a forum for uncontrolled discussion and organization of activism, as well as the online vandalism of ‘hacktivism’. Sometimes activism can spill over, such as the riots at the anti-globalization protests of the 1999 Seattle World Trade Organization meeting. Non-violent direct action must be recommended, as violent activism undermines the cause and is sometimes branded ‘ecoterrorism’. Quite the reverse, most protest and activism works towards human rights and socio-ecological harmony, including the peace movement, civil rights movement and green movement. (See PROTEST, NONVIOLENT RESISTANCE, CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE, DIRECT ACTION, DISSENT, INDUSTRIAL ACTION, CULTURE JAMMING, REVOLUTIONARY, ECOTERRORISM, HACKTIVISM, ANTI-GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT, GREEN MOVEMENT, PEACE MOVEMENT, ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM) (MP) ACTIVITY ANOREXIA: See ANOREXIA ATHLETICA. ACUPUNCTURE: A Chinese traditional system of healing. This system treats various ailments by means of inserting small needles into the skin briefly at specific locations. These locations are known as "acupuncture points", and groups of these points are classed together in "meridians", of which there are twelve major ones. The system of acupuncture is popular in East Asia, and in recent decades has gained prominence in the West as well, as a method of controlling pain. The theory behind acupuncture is quite complex, involving the interaction of different organs with the Five Elements (see FIVE ELEMENTS) and with Yin and Yang (see YIN AND YANG). The central texts on acupuncture are written in classical Chinese, although some texts have been translated. (AG) ADA: American Disability Act of 1990 which prohibits discrimination in the workplace against a handicapped person who is otherwise qualified. The act came into effect from 1992. (JA). ADA DEFICIENCY: Adenosime deaminase deficiency is a rare genetic disease that is caused by lack of functional adenosine deaminase enzyme, that causes an immunodeficiency disease. In 1990 it was the target disease of the first attempts at human gene therapy, and has been one of the few genetic diseases claimed to be cured by gene therapy (2001). (See HUMAN GENE THERAPY) (DM) ADAM AND EVE: See GENESIS and ORIGINAL SIN. ADAPT: (Latin: adapt’re ‘to fit to’) The adjustment of behaviour, form or function as a result of changes in the surrounding environment or circumstances. For something to adapt, it must change or modify to suit a different purpose. Biology adapts during evolution, technology adapts to modernity, but most importantly for ethics, belief systems and human behaviours must adapt to suit an increasingly crowded and limited Earth. (See ADAPTATION, ADAPTIVE THINKING, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, HUMAN EXTINCTION) (MP) ADAPTABILITY: The ability to adjust with changes in circumstances is an important attribute for effective learning, personality development, planning, management, marketing, development and technological implementation. (See ADAPTIVE THINKING) (MP) ADAPTATION: 1. in evolutionary biology a particular structure, physiological process or behavior that provides an organism with an advantage to better survive and reproduce; 2. the evolutionary process which leads to the development or modification of an existing structure or function in response to a changed environment; 3. the physiological response of sensory receptor organs (vision, touch, temperature, olfaction, audition and pain) to stimuli from the continually changing environment; 4. the conscious or unconscious modification of an individual adjusting to changing social and cultural surroundings. (IP) ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT: Adaptive management is handling, direction and control, which is responsive to changing circumstances. Ecological, sociopolitical and corporate management strategies are most effective when easily adapted and modified to accommodate changed environments, superior information or new motivations. This is a continuous dynamic process involving environmental and economic monitoring and assessment. Elements associated with adaptive management include: the collection and incorporation of new information, evidence-based management, adaptive modification of plans and strategies, the precautionary principle, strategic environmental assessment, environmental impact assessment, mitigation and contingency planning, taking opportunities rather than waiting for them, learning from the mistakes of others as well as your own, openness to innovation and responsiveness to critical input into the process. (See ADAPT, ADAPTIVE THINKING, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE) (MP) ADAPTIVE RADIATION: The evolutionary divergence of a lineage of organisms into different phenotypes. (See RADIATION, EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION) (MP) ADAPTIVE THINKING: The ability to change one’s mind on the basis of newcertainty, is able to say 'I don't know', and is willing to revise beliefs and opinions. (See ADAPT, ADAPTATION, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT) (MP) ADD: See ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER. ADDICTION: (Latin: addicere ‘to devote’) Compulsive, uncontrollable dependence on a substance, habit or practice to such a degree that cessation causes severe emotional and/or physical responses; however, the term is most often used in the context of drug addiction. Because drug addiction is a difficult concept to define, a WHO expert committee in 1970 substituted the words "drug dependence" which is characterized by psychological symptoms such as craving and a compulsion to take the drug on a continuous or periodic basis, with serious emotional and physical side-effects developing when the drug is withheld. The drugs of major concern (all causing physical and/or psychological symptoms of dependence) are alcohol, nicotine, the opiates, the sedatives particularly barbiturates, stimulants such as cocaine and the amphetamines, the hallucinogens like mescaline and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and cannabis also known as marijuana, pot, dope or hashish. Although government concern centers primarily on illegal drug abuse such as heroin, the adverse effects of these is relatively small in comparison with the very large number of people dependent on alcohol and tobacco. Furthermore, few addicts confine their intake to a single substance, and synergistic interactions are often many times more hazardous than the additive effects would indicate. Dopamine is the messenger of the brain’s reward systems and has been dubbed the courier of addiction because many paths of pleasure in the brain employ dopamine messengers in their reinforcement. Mine in the brain and stimulate this reward system. For example, the "buzz" described by those taking amphetamines (better known as speed), or the "rush" of snf the sudden increase of brain dopamine activity that these drugs stimulate. Consequently, it is not entirely by accident that the ingenious human species hasts - often with pain and illness to themselves and their offspring as a result - of the natural intoxicants like alcohol, tobacco, opium and cocaine. Thereforponsibility and intelligent realism when it comes to caring for oneself, and if that fails judicious pharmacological intervention plus a program of self-educaand prevention. (see FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME; DRUG TOLERANCE; INDIVIDUAL DRUG ENTRIES; INTERNET ADDICTION; GAMBLING ADDICTION) (IP) ADENINE: Commonly abbreviated as A, one of four nitrogen containing bases in nucleotides, a component of DNA and RNA. (JA) ADENOSINE DEAMINASE DEFICIENCY: See ADA DEFICIENCY. ADHD: See ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER. ADOLESCENCE: the period between childhood and adulthood when, typically, dependence and immaturity are replaced by independence and maturity. In the USA it is the age designation for humans 13-18 years old. Adolescence is a time of emotional fluctuation and vulnerability due to the biological effects of rising sex hormone secretion and heightened libido. It may be a time of identity crisis, changing body image, experimentation with sex roles and sexuality (see PUBERTY). (IP, DM) ADOPTION: The bringing of someone into a relationship that (s)he did not previously enjoy. Normally used to refer to the taking into a family of a baby or young person. Such adoptees generally have the legal privileges of natural daughters and sons. Refers to the integration of a child, born to another couple, into a family who decides to take care, educate and give love to this child. Law rules strictly the qualifications needed for adoption; usually, it is requested that the couple be composed by father and mother, but in some occasions, a single mother or father is also allowed to adopt. Third world countries bestow an elevated number of children for adoption to couples from wealthy countries. Usually, children for adoption have been previously abandoned or given to special institutions for this purpose. In most cases, these children are born to single women, whose economical situation does not allow them to raise a child, or are the outcome of rape. Unmarried pregnant young women in particular families are also sometimes forced by these to give their baby away for adoption. Since abortion is prohibited in most of these countries, they all have in the majority of cases no other way to solve the problem. Many hundreds of children around the world are adopted per year, but still many more remain in institutions awaiting for someone to give them a better life. In some countries, like Japan, adoption of older persons occurs. (MR+GK) ADRENAL GLANDS: Paired organs situated on top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland is in fact two separate glands: a) the adrenal cortex (the outer portion) which synthesizes three principal classes of hormones - the glucocorticoids such as cortisol (implicated in stress physiology), the mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone (implicated in ionic balance of body fluids) and smaller amounts of sex hormones such as androgens and estrogens and b) the adrenal medulla (the inner portion) which consists of sympathetic neurons that secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline facilitating the alarm reaction of the General Adaptation Syndrome. (See ADRENALINE; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME; HOMEOSTASIS) (IP) ADRENALINE: (Latin ad 'at' + ren 'kidney') Also known as epinephrine, is the 'fight-or-flight' hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla and affecting circulation, muscular action and general arousal. It also acts as a catecholamine neurotransmitter and provides the reaction sought after by the so called "adrenaline junkies". (See ADRENALINE JUNKIES; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME; ADRENAL GLANDS) (IP+MP) ADRENALINE JUNKIE: A person who habitually engages in risk-taking behavior such as extreme sports, due to a more than usual enjoyment in the associated releases of adrenaline or related hormones and neurotransmitters. (See ADRENALINE, JUNKIE) (MP) ADULTS: Important for definition in relation to consent. Varies between countries. In the USA it is the age designation for humans 19-64 years old, with those 65 years and older being referred to as the aged. For bioethics purposes those persons 18 years and older are given legal competence in most countries. (See CONSENT) (DM) ADULTERY: voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and any other than the lawful spouse. In many countries adultery has been the principal ground for divorce and in earlier periods was even punishable by death, but despite legal and cultural prohibitions adultery has persisted throughout history. Various published surveys originating in the west have indicate that at least 50% of married men and women admit to having sexual intercourse after marriage with a person other than their spouse. From the biological perspective, the practice may represent a subconscious desire to outbreed and gain fitness by increased genetic diversity. (See SPERM COMPETITION, MARRIAGE, OPEN MARRIAGE, SWINGING, MISTRESS, CONCUBINE, COURTESAN, CUCKOLD, DIVORCE) (IP) ADVANCE DIRECTIVES: Declarations by patients, made in advance of a situation in which they may be incompetent or unable to decide about their own care, stating their treatment preferences or authorizing a third party to make decisions for them. These include various documents including Durable power of attorney, Living wills, Psychiatric wills, Donor cards. (See also LIVING WILL, RIGHT TO DIE, EUTHANASIA) (DM+IP) ADVERSARIAL SYSTEM: A system or process which relies on two or more opposing sides to resolve conflict and make decisions. Adversarial government systems and legal process may engender conflict, bickering and ‘zero-sum’ bitternl iterations and destructive criticism of theories are the backbone of progress in science. (See COLLABORATION, TEAMWORK, CONFLICT RESOLUTION, GAME THEORY) (MP) ADVERSE EFFECT: a clinical or perceived undesired effect of a chemical or physical agent. (SG2) ADVISORY COMMITTEES: Committees or commissions set up to advise governmental bodies or other institutions on public policy. (See also ETHICS COMMITTEES , REVIEW COMMITTEES) (DM) ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON GENETIC TESTING: See ACGT (UK). AEROBE: (Greek: aer 'air') Any microorganism that lives and grows on free oxygen (Greek: aer air + bios life). (See ANAEROBE) (IP) AEROBIC: Pertaining to the presence of air or oxygen, or requiring oxygen for the maintenance of life (Greek aer air) (see AEROBIC EXERCISE, ANAEROBIC). (IP) AEROBIC EXERCISE: any physical exercise which requires additional effort by the heart and lungs to meet the increased respiratory demand for oxygen. The activity is beneficial for all body components and it is significant to note that physical activity need not consist of an organized exercise program because simple pleasures, such as bush walking, gardening and other homely physical activities, also burn off excess calories which, if unused, turn to fat. Regular gentle aerobic exercise is important in pregnancy, however, since pregnancy requires a high degree of reflex coordination high impact sports needing a good sense of balance; such as water and snow skiing, diving, ice skating and riding, should be avoided. (See ANAEROBIC EXERCISE) (IP) AEROBICS: See AEROBIC EXERCISE. AEROSOLS: are small particulates both natural and synthetic which are potentially of great importance climatically. The general trend suggests that they are increasing over the globe, particularly over industrial regions of the Northern Hemisphere where they reduce solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth. The colloquial epithet "aerosol abuse" has been used to highlight harm caused from industrial aerosols by the environmentally irresponsible. (see NUCLEAR WINTER) (IP) AESTHETICS: The appreciation of beauty and appearance. (DM) AFFECT: A transitive verb meaning to influence (act on, move, impress) to produce change in something (e.g. in a system, disease, person). To affect is to produce an effect. (See CAUSATION, EFFECT) (MP) AFFIRMATIVE ACTION: The positive treatment of minority groups. Some say that positive discrimination is still discrimination, but affirmative action helps rebuild bridges of opportunity, and is a form of acknowledgement for past wrongs and the legacies of slavery, Colonialism and the dispossession of indigenous people. Examples of affirmative action include the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act (Australia), Indigenous land management, educational privileges, healthcare assistance and social welfare assistance. (See MINORITY GROUPS, ACTIVISM) (MP) AFLOTOXINS: Fungal toxins, Aspergillus flavus, of peanut, corn toxins have carcinogenic substances. (JA) AFRO-AMERICAN: This term is used to designate the African descendants born in the United States of America. It has replaced the terms of "colored" or "black", which had a racist connotation. The word also vindicates the cultural relationship of these American descendants with the African cultures. Afro-American is also used in a broad sense to designate the Afro-descendants of all America, North, Central and South. (GK) AFRO-COLOMBIAN, AFRO-BRAZILIAN: In those countries of South America, where a considerable part of the population descend from African immigrants, these people recognize themselves as Afro-Colombians of Afro-Brazilians. Many cultural traits have survived admixture and imposition of the dominant European culture. This is particularly true in music, dance, funerary rituals, marriage, extended families, etc. In Colombia, some of these groups have even maintained a Bantu related language, a pidgin language called "palenquero". (GK) AGAPE: In the Greek language, three verbs can be used for the English word love, namely eros, phileo and agapao. These there verbs mean sensual love, brotherly love and self-giving love respectively. Agape love indicates the supreme and a nobler form of love, as seen in the sacrificial death of the Lord Jesus Christ on the cross for all human sin. Both Jews and Gentiles have a practice of fellowship and brotherhood means. The name agape can also indicate such fellowship meal. (JA) AGE: Age factors are used when age is discussed as in relation to a subject or problem example, age of consent, or age related quality of life. AGE DISTRIBUTION: The demography of the comparative ages of individuals in a population, commonly graphed as a ‘population pyramid’. In developed countries with fewer children there is occurring a ‘graying’ of the population, whereas many less developed countries have the reverse, a ‘youth bulge’. Age distribution helps elucidate population trends, cohorts, generations, immigrations, emigrations, birth rates and mortality rates. (See AGE/SEX PYRAMID, POPULATION DISTRIBUTION, DEMOGRAPHY, COHORT, LIFE CYCLE) (MP) AGE OF CONSENT: The age at which consenting sexual intercourse becomes legal, commonly at 16 years. More broadly, also the ages at which other rights of adults are conferred onto kids, such as driving, drinking alcohol and voting. (See ADULTS, CONSENT) (MP) AGE/SEX PYRAMID: The Age/Sex Pyramid is a frequency distribution histogram displaying population composition according to age group (vertical scale) and gender (left/right), useful for illustrating age-specific birth, death, disease, fertility rates etc. (See AGE DISTRIBUTION) (MP) AGED: In the USA this is the age designation for humans 65 years or older. Many persons in modern society live into advanced age, so the definition of 65 years or older may not be ethically relevant. Homes for the aged, pension schemes, senile dementia, and ageism (age-related discrimination in access to health care or other social services) are important issues. (See QUALITY OF LIFE) (DM) AGENDA 21: An environmental, social and economic action plan for the 21 st Century based upon principles of sustainable development. Agenda 21 was arranged and approved by many countries during the Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED 1992). Although it suffers from negotiated compromise and is not legally binding, it is nevertheless an ambitious first international attempt to reconcile development and environment issues. (See EARTH SUMMIT, CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT). (MP) AGENT ORANGE: the U.S. military code name of a mixture of herbicides used as a defoliant agent in Southeast Asia to deny communist soldiers jungle cover during the 1960s war in Vietnam. It is claimed that exposure to this agent is a cause of generations of birth defects and other inherited ailments including cancer, neuropathy and a variety of chronic diseases, however, confirmation of any such linkage would take decades of further research; thus, compensation demands from Hanoi and U.S. veterans are easily dismissed. Spraying was halted in 1971 when it was discovered that Agent Orange was contaminated with the highly toxic chemical dioxin, which is capable of harming human and animal health and has well-established multigenerational adverse health effects. Despite uncertainty as to the long-term effects of the wartime defoliant, there is the view that Washington and Agent Orange manufacturers, Dow Chemical Co. and Monsanto Co., have a moral duty to compensate Vietnamese who have suffered from exposure. (See VIETNAM WAR, DIOXIN) (IP) AGGRESSION: Hostile or malicious actions or behavior; the act of violating by force the rights of another individual or group, including territorial rights. Aggressive behavior may have a genetic component, however it is likely to be predominantly a learned response in humans, precipitated by environmental variables such as periods of stress. Males have a higher incidence of fighting, crime, verbal aggression and fantasy aggression, although females will aggressively protect their young. Human aggression can be reduced by a nurturing environment of social responsibility from a young age. (see AGGRESSOR NATION, DESENSITIZATION, VIOLENT MEDIA, WARFARE) (MP) AGGRESSOR NATION: The nation state which attacks, initiates or first declares a situation of warfare with another nation. Although it may sometimes be difficult, due to historical and social circumstances or wartime propaganda, the decisive determination of who was the aggressor nation can be a useful step in ethical conflict resolution, mediation and peace enforcement. (See INSTITUTION OF WAR, PEACE ENFORCEMENT) (MP) AGRICULTURE: Cultivation of crops and domestication of farm animals. Seems to have happened independently around 10 000 to 8000 BCE in the Middle East, the Orient and the Americas. Involves four processes: (1) Breeding of animals or sowing of seeds; (2) Caring for the animals or plants; (3) Collecting produce (e.g. harvesting, milking, slaughtering); (4) Selecting and keeping back some of the produce for the next generation. (MR) AGING: A natural biological process beginning soon after birth, and ending with death. In most ancient cultures, youngsters honored aged persons, seen as experienced, wise people. Still sometimes in aboriginal groups, one of the old men or women is chosen as the shaman, and given the religious, medical and political leadership of the whole community. Today, aging is seen in western countries as a fatal issue of life, and many hope that, with ongoing progress of biomedical sciences, its happening will be thrown back many years. Also, due to better life conditions and health care programs, people get older than decades before. In both cases, a high input of money and human endeavor is needed to give aging people an adequate life quality. Ethical considerations must balance the justification of these efforts face to other more poignant problems of humanity, as is famine, misery, war mutilations, basic health care, etc. (GK) AGNOSTIC: (Greek: agnostos 'unknown') Holding the belief that because nothing is known about the existence of God there is the need to keeps an open mind beyond physical/ biological phenomena. The Victorian biologist and philosopher T.H. Huxley coined the term stating that in his opinion the laws of Nature could quite satisfactorily explain all natural phenomena and could not find a logical need for the existence of God. (IP) AGRICULTURAL ETHICS: The study of the ethical issues associated by agriculture, aquaculture and fishing. May also include forestry in common discussions, e.g. the Ethics in Food and Agriculture program on FAO (www.fao.org). There are numerous topics discussed in the use of agriculture, and some are reflected in documents relating to agriculture, including the debates over the use of animals, the concept of quality of life for animals, the concept of Maximum Sustainable Yield in fishing, the Land Charter, Peasant's Charter, the Pesticide Convention, and access to, and conservation of, genetic resources, for example. (DM) AGRICULTURE: The planned cultivation and/or nurture of living organisms to provide food or other products, e.g. wool, cotton. Often also called farming. Origins are unsure, but commonly considered to be seen in the past ten thousand years of human culture. There are possible signs of agriculture in humans over the past hundred thousand years. Some agriculture is seen in other species as well, at much earlier points in history. (DM) AGROBACTERIUM: (Agro = soil) Agrobacterium tumefaciens a common soil bacteria that can naturally carry genetic information (DNA) into plant cells by infecting wound sites on plant stems. (JA) AGRO-BIOTECHNOLOGY: The application of biotechnology to agriculture, such as the use of modern recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding programs to increase crop yield or disease resistance. In addition to creating genetically modified novel crop varieties, agro-biotechnology is also used by conservationists to maintain a viable global supply of germ plasm in order to safeguard future genetic diversity and a continuing crop inventory. (see AGROTECHNOLOGY, GENETIC ENGINEERING) (MP & IP) AGROFORESTRY: (Agronomy + Forestry) A farming practice which integrates timber plantation with agricultural production on the same area of land. The combination of trees with crops not only provides a diversification of produce, but also provides habitat and protection from soil erosion and salinity. (See PERMACULTURE, TREE PLANTING). (MP) AGRONOMICS: The economics of agronomy, for example the productivity of cultivation practices or the trade and distribution of agricultural products. (MP) AGRONOMY: The science of agricultural cultivation, land and soil management, and the production of crops. (See AGRICULTURE) (MP) AGROTECHNOLOGY: (Agronomy + technology) The application of science-based technology to agricultural production; the technological means by which humans exploit farm ecosystems, artificially eliminating natural species competition and manipulating the system to increase its yield of products of high value to humans. Examples include modern agricultural equipment such as hydroponics, agri-business such as large government-financed breeding programs, and agro-biotechnology such as genetically modified crops. (See AGRO-BIOTECHNOLOGY, AGRICULTURE) (IP & MP) AHIMSA: The South Asian cultural ideal of being non violent. Mahatma Gandhi used the principle of non violence in his struggle for freedom from foreign occupation of India. (JA) AI: See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION or ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE. AID: Artificial insemination using donor sperm. (see ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION) AIDS:
acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome - the clinical end
stage of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection which results
in severe, irreversible immune suppression. After sufficient immune
system damage has occurred, the individual becomes susceptible to
infection by many opportunistic diseases including cancers. These
opportunistic diseases then become the indirect markers of AIDS;
thus, AIDS is a syndrome or collection of many diseases resulting
from HIV infection. The conditions was first noticed by doctors
in the 1970s and formally described under the name acquired immune
deficiency state in 1980. At first AIDS was identified as principally
affecting two groups: drug users who shared needles and male homosexuals
but now it’s principally spread by the heterosexual community
and bisexual males, and can be passed through the placenta and breast
milk to the children of thosets and kills CD4+ lymphocytes (T helper
cells) weakening the immune system’s ability to fight infection.
HIV may also invade macrophages and brain cecourse, semen and contaminated
blood. All semen donors are initially testeill within the incubation
period), before the donor product may be used in any IVF clinic. AIDS SERODIAGNOSIS: Immunologic tests for the identification of HIV (HTLV-III/LAV) antibodies; includes assays for HIVseropositivity and seronegativity which have been developed for detecting persons carrying the viral antibody. (DM) AIH: See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION BY HUSBAND. AIR POLLUTION: Gases, liquids and solids which, when added to the normal composition of the atmosphere, may be hazardous to biology, ecology or human health. Processes leading to pollution of the atmosphere include attrition, vaporization and combustion. Types and sources of air pollution include photochemical smog, transportation exhausts, incinerator emissions, forest fire smoke, industrial discharges, greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, CFCs etc.), suspended particulates, oxides of carbon and sulfur, inorganic and organic acids, toxic chemicals, trace elements, irritants and odors. Grit is sharp particulate matter such as dust which may cause skin and eye irritation. Grime is accumulated soot or dirt which adheres to a person or cityscape. Airborne particles may adsorb corrosive chemicals leading to the erosion of infrastructure and monuments. Air pollution epidemics are a recurring health problem in many major urban centers. Monitoring and regulation are beginning to improve in the developed world, with air pollution meteorology and models becoming more common in weather forecasts. Emissions may be controlled or reduced by absorption, adsorption, mechanical collection, air pollutant incineration, catalytic conversion, electrostatic precipitation, fabric filters, wet collectors, mechanical cyclones, smokestack scrubbers and other pollution control devices - often legally regulated but also self-initiated by visionary companies. (See POLLUTION, WATER POLLUTION, ATMOSPHERE, GREENHOUSE GASES, ACID RAIN) (MP) AKIDO vs UESHIBA, MORIHEI: A Japanese martial art, based on ancient tradition derived from the Samurai. But while Japanese martial arts formerly combined both violent and peaceful aspects, Aikido is one of those arts which, after World War II, has been emphasizing the peaceful, seeing martial techniques as ways of discouraging a violent attacker without hurting him or her seriously, eventually leading to love and peace. It is for these reasons that martial arts can be important to bioethics. (FL) ALCOHOL: (Arabic: alkohl 'subtle essence') A clear water miscible organic substance obtained by fermentation with one or more hydroxyl (OH - ) groups; but in common parlance refers to the ethyl alcohol or spirit contained in any beverage such as wine or liquor. (see ALCOHOLISM; ETHYL ALCOHOL; FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME) (IP) ALCOHOLISM: severe dependency on alcohol intake associated with cumulative destructive physical, reproductive and behavioral effects. The most serious medical consequences are central nervous system deterioration, liver cirrhosis and adverse reproductive effects. Alcohol abuse is the overuse of alcohol to the extent of habituation, dependence, or addiction. (see ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA); FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME) (IP, DM) ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA): an international nonprofit organization, founded in 1935, made up of members whose purpose is to stay sober and help others to recover from the disease of alcoholism. The AA program guides members through a 12-step plan aimed at overcoming alcohol addiction through abstinence, group support, shared experiences and faith. (IP) ALDRIN: A dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, one of the 'dirty dozen' persistent organic pollutants. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP) ALEXITHYMIA: lack of emotionality or an inability to consciously experience and communicate feelings. (see AXIODRAMA, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE) (IP) ALGAE: (Latin: alga "seaweed") A wide diversity of chiefly aquatic organisms comprising the seaweeds and various freshwater forms varying in appearance and size from single celled phytoplankton to multicellular macroalgae such as kelps. They are the Earth’s dominant autotrophs supplying 50-60% of all photosynthesis on Earth. (see AUTOTROPH, LICHENS) (MP & IP) ALGAL BLOOM: A suffocating build-up of rapidly multiplying algae and bacteria, occurring in phosphorus enriched waterways caused by run-off sewage, fertilizers and the processes of eutrophication. The resulting increased biological activity transforms the water-mass green or red with large-scale decomposition rendering the habitat malodorous and toxic. Since all available oxygen is utilized by the bloom, anaerobic organisms begin to dominate the sediments, killing most of the animals from the previously viable aquatic habitat. (see EUTROPHICATION & FISH KILLS) (MP & IP) ALGEBRA: the branch of mathematics in which symbols (e.g. x,y,z) are used to represent numbers or variables in arithmetic operations. (See ARITHMETIC) (IP) AL-GHAZALI: (1058-1111) Muslim scholar, theologian and Sufi, author of "Ihya Ulum al-Din" ("Revivification of the Religious Sciences"). In his major work , "Ihya Ulum al-Din", Al-Ghazali explains and clarifies in four parts, the foundation of the beliefs of Islam, and the path of the Sufi. The first part deals with basic principles, the concept of worship in Islam and the importance of study and seeking knowledge. The second part deals with many matters of ethics. The third section deals with the evil traits that should be avoided, as they are an obstacle to approaching God. The fourth section deals with the stages of spiritual purification that are needed in order to attain salvation. (AG) ALGORITHM: A set of steps or instructions which precisely describe a limited procedure or task. Computer programs are written in programming languages designed around the requirements for precision and coordination of sets of algorithms. (See COMPUTER, ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES, GENETIC ALGORITHM) (MP) ALIEN LIFE: It is certainly possible, perhaps probable, that life is common across the universe. Readings from distant sources in the galaxy have detected some chemical constituents of chlorophyll and amino acids. One serious scientific theory proposes that ice from impacting comets may have delivered the first building blocks of life to Earth. Solar systems with planets similar to our own are relatively common, estimated conservatively by Harvard University’s Harlow Shapley at more than one hundred million fcts for life in our solar system are on Europa, oneeport flying saucers and alien abductions. Scientifent life cannot be found because it quickly tends to destroy itself with its own technology. (See LIFE, SETI, ORIGIN OF LIFE) (MP) ALIENS: Beings from another planet. Ethical issues relating to the human attitude to aliens has been extensively discussed in science fiction literature. The term is also used in Japan and the USA to refer to foreigners. (DM) ALLAH: Allah is special name for God in Arabic. In Islamic belief, Allah alone is the true God for all that exists who has no partners or rivals. The Quran mentions 100 names for God, which in deed they are adjectives and each one expresses one of His attributes. Allah is not a descriptive name like other ninety nine names and attributes such as The Merciful, The Beneficent. The name Allah, itself contains all these attributes. There is no consensus that the word Allah is compounded of "al" the definite article and "ilah", meaning "a god". The Qur`an mentions the word "Allah" have also been used in pre-Islamic times.This word is used by all Arabic speaking, Muslims, Christians Jews and others. (See QURAN) (AB). ALLELES: Alternative forms of a genetic locus; alleles are inherited separately from each parent (e.g. at a locus for eye color there might be alleles resulting in blue or brown eyes). (DM) Alleles arise through mutations in a given DNA sequence. If the locus codes for a protein, alleles can result in different phenotypes. Alleles can be dominant (a single dose is sufficient for expression of the phenotype) or recessive (both genes must carry a mutant allele in order to express the trait). At the genotype level, the alleles at a given locus are co-dominant. Different alleles can also be found in silent regions of the genome (the non-coding part of the genome) (see STR, VNTR, SNP, RFLP). Some loci are bi-allelic, having only two alternative forms, but the most useful loci for gene mapping, population studies and human identification analyses are those which are multiallelic, resulting in a high polymorphism content of the locus at the population level. (GK) ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES: See RESOURCE ALLOCATION. ALLOCATION RIGHTS: See QUOTA. ALLOGRAFT: (Greek allos "other" + graphion "stylus") also called homograft, a non-permanent graft of tissue between two genetically different individuals of the same species such as a tissues transplant between two individuals who are not identical twins. The graft material can include, for example, cadaver skin stored in a tissue-bank. (See AUTOGRAFT, XENOGRAFT) (IP) ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION: Evolutionary divergence of populations which forms different species due to geographic separation, which do not interbreed. (JA) ALLOPATRY: (Greek: allo "other" and Latin: patria "homeland"). Occupying different geographic distributions or ranges. (See ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION, SYMPATRY) (MP) ALLOSTASIS: (Greek: allo 'variable' + stasis 'stability') literally 'achieving stability through change' describes the mechanisms which enable the body to withstand challenge. Allostatic systems, particularly the nervous, hormonal and immune complexes, protect the body by adapting to the ever-changing internal and external demands made on it. Allostatic load refers to the price of adaptation; that is, the accumulated wear and tear from chronic over- or underactivity of the allostatic systems (see STRESS, HOPE and WELLBEING). (IP) ALLOWABLE CATCH: See TOTAL ALLOWABLE CATCH. ALLOWING TO DIE: Thee withdrawal or withholding of life-prolonging treatment. This is often referred to as Passive euthanasia, and is sometimes effected through Do not Resuscitate (DNR) orders. (See also EUTHANASIA, FUTILITY, PROLONGATION OF LIFE, RIGHT TO DIE, TERMINAL CARE, WITHHOLDING TREATMENT) (DM) ALPHA-1-ANTITRYPSIN: See AAT. ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN: See MATERNAL SERUM ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN. ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN SCREENING: A routine maternal serum screening test used for pregnant women to detect pregnancies at high risk for chromosomal disorders or neural tube defects. (See also PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS, TRIPLE TEST) (DM) AL-RAZI
(RHAZES):
865-925, Muslim scholar, physician and chemist. He was born at Ray,
Iran. Author of works on medicine, pharmacology and philosophy.
His contribution to medicine was so significant that it can be compared
to that of Ibn Sina, his share, greatly influenced the development
of science in general and medicine in particular. In his method,
he took patient's history and clinical observation in medical
practice. ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS: An abnormal state of mind. Space and time may appear to be suspended, and the psyche (mind/soul) may seem detached from the body (soma). Such a condition may be the result of meditation, mystical prayer, ritualistic ceremonies, orgiastic dancing, sleep deprivation, starvation, shock, hypnosis, mental illness, mind-altering drugs and of course dreaming. (See MEDITATION, DREAM, RECREATIONAL DRUGS, HYPNOSIS, MANIA, DEPERSONALIZATION, DISSOCIATION) (IP & MP) ALTERNATIVE ENERGY: See RENEWABLE ENERGY. ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM: An up-and-coming alternative social framework or world-view. The new environmental paradigm places intrinsic value in the preservation of nature, is eco-centric, based on soft power and soft technology, treats economics only as a means to an end, recognizes limits to growth, condones collaborative, leisurely and sufficiency lifestyles, believes in grassroots organization, decentralization, people power and nonviolent direct action, is non-consumeristic and non-nuclear, promotes sustainable development and ethical value systems, and encourages compassion and tolerance towards other species, human groups, and future generations. (See DOMINANT PARADIGM, PARADIGM SHIFT, GREEN MOVEMENT, PEACE MOVEMENT, ANTI-GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT, SOFT POWER, SOFT TECHNOLOGY, HIPPIES, NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION, ACTIVISM, DEVELOPMENT, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESS, UTOPIA) (MP)
ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES:
Unorthodox or unconventional or complementary therapeutic systems
and therapies. What is unconventional in some parts of the world
may be very conventional in others. For example Ayurvedic and Chinese
medicine are unconventional in the West, but quite conventional
in the East. Although Western physicians have had a very negative
attitude in the past, to what is regarded as unconventional, there
are now increasingly many attempts at scientific clinical trials
of alternative medicine. The idea of "integrative medicine",
seeking to integrate the best from various methods, may replace
old ideas of what is conventional and what isn't. ALTERNATIVES: See DECISION MAKING, DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS. ALTRUISM: Social interaction, a behavior of doing good to another at the expense of its own welfare. Disinterested altruism is a disadvantage from an evolutionary viewpoint. A gene can be altruistic if promotes the welfare of another entity. Opp. Selfish = opposite sense. There are however interested forms of altruism, which may favour survival of the individual or the species, by being cooperative. (JA, DM) ALZHEIMER’s DISEASE: Also called senile dementia-Alzheimer type after Alois Alzheimer, neurologist, 1864-1915. It is characterized by progressive and irreversible mental deterioration, confusion, memory failure, disorientation, restlessness, speech and movement disturbances and hallucinosis. (See DEMENTIA; PSYCHOSIS) (IP+DR) AMBIGUITY: Vague or uncertain meaning; the possibility of multiple distinct interpretations of a single expression. Ambiguity and circumlocution are tools used by politicians to avoid sensitive lines of questioning. Ambiguity can be beneficial to the spread of some memes, for example the term "sustainable development" has broad appeal to both environmentalists and developers precisely because of its ambiguity. The ambiguities of language may provide the subtleties of literature, but language precision is centrally important to bioethical policy and scientific discourse where ambiguity can obscure important assumptions or methodological details. (See DEFINITION, EUPHEMISM) (MP) AMERINDIAN: Definition adopted by anthropologists to call the inhabitants of the Americas belonging to one of the three main linguistic families defined by Joseph Greenberg, the Amerind speaking peoples. In modern biological anthropology and genetics, this term has been adopted to designate a group of present-day native American peoples from North-, Central- and South America in all the studies of the biological variation that attempt to characterize the DNA polymorphisms of different loci in these and other human groups. Although the linguistic classification of the Native American languages remains controversial, the term is now coined for the peoples inhabiting this part of the planet. (GK) AMINO ACID: Any of a group of 20 molecules that combine to form proteins in living things. Chemically they contain an amino group, -NH2, and a carboxyl group, -COOH. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the genetic code. There are actually 21 in number, with the 21st , selenocysteine, being seldom used. They are the building blocks to form proteins, e.g. Glycine. (DM+JA) AMNESIA: (Greek: mnasthai "to forget") Memory loss caused by brain damage or severe emotional trauma. Usually only certain sections of the memory are affected, for example anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories since the onset of amnesia, whilst still allowing the retention of language and other basic skills. (See MEMORY IMPAIRMENT) (MP) AMNIOCENTESIS: Diagnostic sampling of the amniotic fluid during pregnancy, usually performed by insertion of a needle into the amniotic cavity which surrounds the foetus during pregnancy. Performed for prenatal screening. (see PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS) (IP, DM). Amniocentesis is followed by either a karyotype (see KARYOTYPE ANALYSIS) to explore the possibility of a chromosomal abnormality in the foetus, or by a molecular genetic test for a particular genetic disease. Usually, amniocentesis is accompanied by genetic counselling; in the case the test results indicate a genetic abnormality in the foetus, parents are given the choice of either interrupting or pursuing the pregnancy. Amniocentesis for Down Syndrome detection is mandatory in many countries for women over 35 years, due to the increased risk from this age on, but in many countries, amniocentesis, and thus, prenatal diagnosis, is not even permitted, on grounds of the illegality of abortion. Nevertheless, bioethicists and lawyers have pointed that the right to know has to be respected above any other consideration. In the case of a positive result for Down syndrome or any other genetic condition, it may help parents and other family members in preparing themselves psychologically to accept the baby, whereas, in the case of a negative result, throwing out the presence of such a problem, the parents are relieved of an unnecessary anxiety during pregnancy (GK). AMNIOTIC FLUID: The fluid in which the fetus floats. (JA) AMOTIVATIONAL SYNDROME: The loss of interest, drive and progress in certain normal aspects of life. These may include social life, for example non-maintenance of friendships, lost interest in outdoor recreation or reduced sex drive; or more commonly in working life, for example a decline in productivity or performance, dropping out of student courses or regular non-attendance at work. Amotivational Syndrome may be an indication of depression, anxiety, persistent drug use or other conditions with symptoms of dullness and lethargy. (See MOTIVATION) (IP+MP) AMPHETAMINES: Central nervous system stimulants, commonly amphetamine sulfate which has the trade name Benzedrine. Developed in the 1920s, amphetamines and their relatives have been used to treat depression, obesity, narcolepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Amphetamines are subject to abuse because of their stimulant properties, which include wakefulness, excitement and increased energy levels, but they are also attractive because of their ability to generate an addictive euphoria when they are ingested, injected or snorted. Abuse can lead to compulsive behavior, dependence, hostility, paranoia, hallucinations, physical deterioration - particularly cardio-vascular - and suicidal tendencies. Regular use may also lead to serious amphetamine-induced psychosis. Amphetamines have many street names such as "speed", "black beauties", "lid poppers", "pep pills" but also "base" which is much stronger, and "crystal meth" or "ice" which is a smokable crystalline derivative of methylamphetamine. As for most toxic addictive drugs, it takes strong motivation to quit, however, users should at all times take care to prevent conception since amphetamine abuse adversely affects sperm quality and in utero fetal development risking postnatal wellbeing. (See RECREATIONAL DRUGS, INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION) (IP) AMPHIBIA: See FROG EXTINCTIONS. AMYGDALA: (Greek: "almond") Part of the brain’s limbic system, specialising in thheir lives. (See EMOTION, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP) ANABOLIC STEROIDS: Synthetic compounds with a molecular structure similar to the male sex hormone testosterone. The anabolic component promotes muscle growth and the androgenic component acts upon masculine traits in the body. They have an important function in general medical applications as; for example, in replacement therapy for men with low testosterone levels, but are also commonly illegally used as performance-enhancing drugs in dosage regimes 10 to 100 times the accepted therapeutic range. Performance enhancement is suitable for weight lifting, body building, power lifting and field events where they permit athletes to train longer and harder with improved competitiveness due to heightened aggression. Uncontrolled steroid use is damaging to health and can cause liver dysfunction and increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Unscrupulous scientists, malpractising doctors or misguided administrators can create a rationale that international success, especially in the Olympic Games, implies the use of performance-enhancing drugs where disputes surrounding the legality of some winning performances (catching "Fool's gold"). Traces can last for years (see ERYTHROPOIETIN or EPO) (IP) ANAEROBE: (Greek: an + aer "without air" + bios "life") any microorganism which lives and grows in the absence, or almost absence, of oxygen. They are widely distributed in nature with just a few being infectious occurring, typically, in deep puncture wounds that exclude air or in tissue that has diminished oxygen-reducing potential. Common examples of anaerobic infections are gangrene, tetanus and botulism - the last a source of poisoning from improperly cooked or canned foods. (see BOTULISM; ENDOTOXIN) (IP) ANAEROBIC: (Greek: an + aer "without air" + bios "life") Any species which generally lives in the absence of oxygen. (IP) ANAEROBIC EXERCISE: Muscular exertion sufficient to result in metabolic acidosis resulting from accumulation of lactic acid - a product of muscle metabolism. This form of strenuous exercise should be avoided at all costs during pregnancy because strenuous physical activity results in many physiological changes that can affect the wellbeing of the fetus. Some of these changes are obvious; for example, severe exercise stimulates increased production of noradrenaline causing immediate contractions of the uterus, which may negatively affect the uteroplacental circulation and the fetus. The most serious argument against endurance sport and also prolonged immersion in saunas during pregnancy concerns the consequences of maternal hyperthermia or overheating. Animal studies have shown a consistent relationship between birth defects and exposure to high temperatures, although the data on human pregnancy and elevated temperature are not as consistent. Hyperthermia has at least four deleterious effects a) teratogenic effects of core temperatures of greater than 40 degrees C in early pregnancy have been conclusively demonstrated in animal studies b) effects of elevated temperature on oxygen hemoglobin-binding curves makes oxygen uptake by the fetal blood more difficult c) effects of increased maternal oxygen consumption due to temperature-induced elevated metabolic rate reduces oxygen availability for fetal consumption d) increased maternal blood flow to the skin for thermoregulation decreases uterine irrigation affecting placental transport of oxygen and nutrients. (See AEROBIC EXERCISE; ANAEROBIC; HYPERTHERMIA) (IP) ANALOG: (Greek analogos 'proportionate'). 1. Likeness in appearance or function but not in evolutionary origin; for example, the insect eye and the mammalian eye - hence analogous. 2. Numerical information (as in analog computer) that is represented in the form of a quantity (usually a voltage) that varies in equal manner as the data but is convenient to manipulate mathematically. (See DIGITAL, COMPUTER) (IP) ANALOGOUS: See ANALOG. ANALOGY: (Greek analogia 'proportion'). In mathematics the identification of a general agreement or similarity between two problems or methods. For instance, analogy is used to indicate the results of one problem from the known results of the other. In biology the identification of a resemblance of form or function between organs essentially different; that is, not of common evolutionary origin. For instance, the wings of birds are analogous to the wings of insects. (See METAPHOR) (IP) ANALYSIS: (Greek ana + lyein 'to loosen'). The branch of mathematics that uses the concept of limits - resolution to simple elements. In chemistry/biology the separation of substances into their constituent parts and the determination of their nature; for example, qualitative analysis determines what elements are present while quantitative analysis determines the quantity of each element. (See ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTICS) (IP) ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a series of statistical procedures for determining whether differences among groups of data are attributable to chance alone. A significance test, it determines whether there is a significant difference between the means of a number of treatment groups. As a common technique for comparison of two or more populations, care should be taken to coordinate experimental design with its requirements. Design considerations and elements of ANOVA include one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, multi-factorial comparisons, randomized block designs, orthogonal designs, nested or hierarchical analyses, transformations of data, degrees of freedom, significance level and probability of Type I and Type II Errors. Tests for homogeneity of variance include Cochran’s Test for balanced data, and Bartlett’s Test for unbalanced data. Analysis of Covariance combines regression techniques with analysis of variance. (See ANALYSIS, VARIANCE, STATISTICS, SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL, TYPE I ERROR, CHI-SQUARE TEST, SCIENTIFIC METHOD) (MP & IP)
ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY:
A movement begun at the beginning of the twentieth century by Bertrand
Russell, Alfred North Whitehead and G.E. Moore in England, by Ludwig
Wittgenstein in Austria and England and by Gottlob Frege in Germany.
Originally it was an extremely demanding discipline of analysing
scientific and mathematical language in terms of mathematical logic.
It was thought that all knowledge consists of sense experience expressed
in logical form, except for mathematics which is entirely formal.
Mathematics, therefore, was thought of as a branch of logic, and
all mathematical truths were to be proved from axioms of logic.
(Axioms of logic are obviously true contentless statements like:
"Either it is or it isn't".) In 1931, however, this
was shown to be a hopeless dream when Kurt Godel published a paper
proving that in any logical system which is strong enough to formulate
simple arithmetic, there will be true statements which cannot be
proven from the axioms of the system. ANARCHISM:
The term is often used pejoratively, with associations of violent
lawlessness. But it also has positive meanings having to do with
the attempt to live without government, coercion or any uniformity
of practice imposed from above. In politics, the doctrine is difficult
to carry out in practice when defense requires some form of governmental
organization. In individual life, however, it can be more practical
and some have succeeded in living quite well while ignoring government
and other coercive institutions. ANCIENT WISDOM: Some people think that humans are getting wiser and more ethical in every generation. Others think that we are getting less wise and less ethical. Many cultures have traditions of ancient wisdom, which is thought of as better than what we have today. Much of these traditions are based on the idea that prophesy belonged only to the ancients, because God, or the gods, only spoke to people in the old days. But there is no emphasis that this is true. It is just as likely that there be prophesy in every generation, or perhaps prophetic periods of history, followed by empty ones, which are followed by new prophesy. (FL) ANDROID: (Greek: andros "man" + eidos "form") Pre-dating the word "robot", the term "android" was used in reference to any machine designed in the human image or constructed to imitate human actions. In contemporary popular culture, an android is a robot difficult to distinguish from human flesh and form, perhaps a cybernetic combination of biochemical and electromechanical components. (See ROBOT) (MP) ANENCEPHALIC: Literally the condition of having no encephalon or brain (normally applied to fetuses or infants with no cerebrum). Anencephaly is the congenital absence of all or a major part of the brain. (DM) ANESTHESIA: The partial or complete loss of sensation with or without consciousness as the result of injury, disease, or administration of an anesthetic. (DM) ANEUPLOIDY: Refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes observed in a karyotype. The number can be either higher (presence of a trisomy), or lower (presence of a monosomy). (JA+GK) ANGEL:
A spiritual being, perhaps endowed with personality. They were extensively
analysed in Jewish philosophy of Maimonides (Moshe ben Maimon) and
in the Christian philosophy of St Thomas Aquinas. Although Judaism,
Islam and Christianity are sometimes thought of as "monotheistic"
religions, recognizing only one God, as opposed to "polytheistic"
religions which have many, it is hard to find any ontological difference
between the angels of the Hebrew Bible and the gods of Hinduism
and Shinto. And the Bible describes the prophets as having had many
interactions with angels. Indeed there are traditions both in Shinto
and in Hinduism, which interpret the many gods just like Judaism
interprets angels, as many different appearances of one infinite
god. (The ancient Greeks and Romans, in contrast, do not seem to
have had any concept of this unity.) So the distinction between
monotheistic and polytheistic religions seems to disappear, making
possible more toleration of diverse religions and cults as representing
many different ways of approaching one infinite God (an attitude
once argued for by Sri Aurobindo). ANGEL DUST: See PHENCYCLIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE. ANGER: A negative emotional reaction associated with other bad feelings such as fear, disgust, shame, irritability, outrage, hostility and possibly even violence. Actions resulting from anger often have negative consequences, because the neurotransmitters/hormones (e.g. adrenaline) released during anger intensify impulsive action and cloud rational thought processes. (See AGGRESSION, ADRENALINE, FEAR, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, TRANQUILITY, JOY) (MP) ANGIOSPERM: The flowering vascular plants which dominate many terrestrial habitats such as deciduous forest, sclerophyll forest and rainforest. Class Angiospermae is primarily differentiated from the Gymnospermae by its mode of reproduction, which is via the seed, the fruit and the flower with its pistil and stamen. Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. (See FLOWER, HARDWOODS, GYMNOSPERM) (MP) ÅNGSTROM: A unit of length defined as 10 -10 meter. Å is used to express wavelengths of light, ultraviolet radiation and sizes of molecules. (IP) ANIMAL: A living being with a capacity for spontaneous movement and a rapid motor response to stimulation. Animals can be divided into two groups, invertebrates (animals without backbones) and vertebrates (animals with backbones). (DM) ANIMAL CARE COMMITTEES: Institutional committees established to protect the welfare of animals used in research. A type of ethics committee that focuses on the welfare of nonhuman animals. (See also ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION) (DM) ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS: An experimental procedure conducted upon a non-human animal. These may be conducted for a variety of purposes, including education, medical research, cosmetic testing, product safety. There are ethics committees in many countries to regulate the experimental nature, procedure and justified purposes. (See ANIMAL RIGHTS, CLINICAL TRIALS) (DM) ANIMAL HOUSE: A place where animals are reared and bred for experimental research, or laboratory testing, of cosmetics and other chemical substances prior to wider use. (JA+DM) ANIMAL RIGHTS: A right is a thing to which an entity is entitled, for example, the 'right to free speech'. Traditionally only human beings have been said to possess rights and even then the term 'rights' is understood by many philosophers as having only legal currency rather than moral authority. The notion of animal rights extends rights to certain non-humans, typically those with sentience, that is, the ability to feel pleasures and pains. Those who advocate animal rights maintain that to allow humans rights but to deny them to all other species is speciesist - which is unacceptably discriminatory. There is an ethical and legal move to ascribe rights to Great Apes, and New Zealand has enacted laws which do. The UK and European Union have not enacted laws which ascribe rights to the Great Apes but it has stopped the practice of using Great Apes in medical experiments, whatever the purported benefits. (See GREAT APE PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS) (MR+DM) ANIMAL TESTING ALTERNATIVES: Procedures, such as tissue culture and mathematical models, that are used in place of the use of animals in research or diagnostic laboratories. (DM) ANIMAL WELFARE: The entitlement of animals to protection from cruelty and abuse, or to not be used solely for the benefit of humans. (See BIOCENTRIC) (DM) ANIMISM: The belief that the boundary between human and non-human is fluid so that the things of the world, both animate and inanimate, are spirited and able to communicate or be spiritually affiliated with humans (see Dreaming). In the modern context most of us now wish to see ourselves more as a participating member of Nature by giving due regard to the interdependence of all living systems and their further dependence on physical cycles. This acknowledgment is a significant intellectual advance as it undercuts the dualistic Greco-Roman view of human and natural systems being distinct from one another and links back to ancient understandings, as substantiated in Paleolithic cave paintings at Lascaux and Altamira and the Dreamtime depictions in Aboriginal rock art. Our hunter ancestors knew Nature and its creatures (many of whom were also their deities) and respected their ethical right to exist alongside humankind. Animism probably served as an adaptive ecological mechanism by impressing a bioethical restraint upon overexploitation and abuse (see TOTEMISM & AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL) (IP+AG). ANNELIDA: (Latin: “nulus 'ring') The zoological phylum containing annelid worms with an internally and externally segmented body and hydrostatic skeleton. Annelida includes the classes Polychaeta (marine worms), Oligochaeta (earthworms) and Hirudinea (leeches). (MP) ANOMALY: See DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALY. ANONYMITY: Without a name. The concept is used in databases to protect the privacy of an individual sample by deleting the name, or identifiable information. The removal of the identifying information can occur before entering the storage facility, or database, or after. (DM) ANONYMOUS TESTING: Epidemiological testing in which the source of the specimen or the person being tested is not individually identified; often used in testing for the prevalence of a disease. (DM) ANOREXIA ATHLETICA: is an exercise addiction which often overlaps with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia where the cycle of forced, prolonged exercise (swimming, running, dancing) and decreasing food intake forms the basis of activity anorexia. In order to maintain an adequate energy balance, caloric needs for non-essential bodily functions; such as reproduction, are suppressed. In the human context, anorexias may have resulted from natural selection favoring those individuals who become active in times of food scarcity as stopping to eat is negatively balanced against reaching an area where food may be abundant (see ANOREXIA NERVOSA; BULIMIA NERVOSA; OBESITY) (IP) ANOREXIA NERVOSA: (Greek: a + orexis 'no appetite') An eating disorder characterized by a prolonged revulsion to eating resulting in emaciation, loss of periods, and emotional disturbance concerning body image and fear of becoming obese. The cause of thinness cannot be attributed to a primary endocrine (hormonal) disorder but the conditions of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, emotional deprivation and calorie restriction can cause secondary endocrine abnormalities; such as delayed or absent puberty and infertility. The condition is primarily a maturational problem in adolescents who, in the majority of cases, come from dysfunctional family homes. For example, a significant proportion of patients with eating disorders were sexually molested by a family member or friend during childhood, or who associated eating with emotional distress, conflict and anxiety states. (see BULIMIA NERVOSA; ANOREXIA ATHLETICA; OBESITY) (IP) ANOVA: see ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE. ANOSMIA: (Greek a + osme 'without smell'). 'Odor blindness' - the total loss or impairment of the sense of smell. Anosmia may be temporary resulting, for example, from an obstructive respiratory infection or a blow on the head which may damage the olfactory receptors, or be permanent as a result of an irreversible damage to any part of the olfactory apparatus. Sometimes anosmia (the so called specific anosmias) does not involve a total loss or reduction of the sense of smell but is instead specific to particular substances; for example, 3% of the population has trouble smelling the odor of sweat, 12% have diminished sensitivity to musky odors. It is important to note that anosmia may be induced by injuring the olfactory receptors consequent to inhaling caustic substances such as lead, zinc sulfate, or concentrated matter such as cocaine. (See OLFACTION, SENSES) (IP) ANTARCTICA: The continent at the South of the planet Earth, where the South Pole is located. A landmass covered with ice, up to several km thick, because it is below freezing. The Antarctic Treaty is an international treaty against commercial exploitation of the mineral resources of this continent, intended to prevent pollution. Many nations have research bases on he continent, and some claim territory of Antarctica or islands off its coast. (DM) ANTE-: Prefix denoting ‘before’ in space or time. (See PRE-, ANTI-) (MP) ANTENATAL DIAGNOSIS: See PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS. ANTHRAX: One of the powerful bacterial biological weapons Bacillus anthracis occurs in many different strains as skin and inhalation strains, stable in spore condition, on contact it multiplies, its toxins cause hemorrhage leading to death. (JA) ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE: (Greek: anthropo ‘human’) Cose exiandon Carter and developed in John Barrow and Frank Tipler’s ‘ The Anthropic Cosmological Principle’ . (See OMEGA POINT THEORY, PARALLEL UNIVERSES THEORY, HOLOGRAPHIC UNIVERSE THEORY, ANTHROPOCENTRIC) (MP) ANTHROPOCENTRIC: A belief, doctrine or attitude in which the Universe is regarded as centered around humankind and organized in terms of human values). Anthropocentrism has been fostered by religious beliefs, placing human beings at the center of Creation, until scientific theories laid down by Darwin, Wallace and other naturalists in the mid-XIX th century have demonstrated that all living beings have common evolutionary roots and share mutual interdependence relationships, including our species. Bioethics based on anthropocentric views overlooks the many issues in which other species are involved, centering its attention only on human beings. (see BIOCENTRIC). (IP, GK). ANTHROPOLOGY: (Greek: Anthropo "man") The study of humans, regarded as the most scientific of the humanities and the humanity of the sciences. Study of human origin, social development and political organization, language, religion and art. (JA) ANTHROPOMORPHISM: (Greek: anthropos "man" + morphe "form") The attribution of human qualities to animals, inventions and other non-human objects or organisms. Although animals may not display properties related to human intelligence, they may have variations on other human qualities such as emotions and feelings like sadness or pain. (MP) ANTHROPOSPHERE: (Greek: anthropo "human" + sphaira "globe") The realm of human activity and infrastructure, a rapidly growing component of the biosphere. The anthroposphere has an input of materials and natural resources, and outputs a flow of waste materials. (See BIOSPHERE) (MP) ANTI- : Combining prefix denoting ‘against’, ‘reverse’ or ‘in opposition to’. (See ANTE-, MAL-, PSEUDO-, META-) (MP) ANTI-ANXIETY DRUGS: See ANXIOLYTICS and ANXIETY. ANTIBIOTIC: (Anti "against" + bios "life") substances produced by plants/animals/microbes which can kill microbes or inhibit their growth. Synthetically produced to stop microbial infection. (Bioactive compounds) (JA) ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE: The ability of microorganisms to adapt and survive high concentrations of a normally lethal antibiotic. The resistance is acquired by the natural selection of resistant mutants in the presence of low concentrations of this antibiotic; however, the production of resistant strains of microorganisms can also be artificially created by means of genetic technology. Antibiotic resistance is often an accidental result of medical overprescription. Another reason is the environmental release of large quantities of antibiotics which are added to the feed of factory-farmed animals. The accidental acceleration of antibiotic resistance generates an urgent race to create new drugs for combating human disease. (See ANTIBIOTIC, ANTIBIOTIC OVERPRESCRIPTION) (IP+MP) ANTIBIOTIC OVERPRESCRIPTION: The overuse or overprescription of antibiotic drugs may result in the accelerated adaptation of resistant strains of microorganisms in the patient and the environment. Hospitals are one of the more common breeding grounds for antibiotic resistant bacteria. Antibiotics are often considered a generic treatment, and in many less developed countries are generally sold over the counter without a prescription or specialist advice. Careless use of antibiotics may also have other side effects, such as the death of useful symbiotic bacteria in the gut, or damage to the structure and function of the ear. For example, antibiotics called aminoglycosides (neuromycin, kanamycin, dihydrostreptomycin and vancomycin) may irreversibly damage hearing by attacking the hair of the cochlea, while streptomycin and gentomycin may affect coordination and balance - if continued, nerve deafness may occur. (See ANTIBIOTIC, ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE) (IP+MP) ANTIBODY: Immune related protein produced by the body in response to a specific antigen. A blood protein (immunoglobin) produced by white blood cells in response to the presence of a specific foreign substance (antigen) in the body, with which it fights or otherwise interacts. Antibodies recognize thousands of different antigens through their highly variable antigen-binding regions, and interact with leukocytes and/or complement components to destroy the antigen. Antibodies to sperm, if present, can impair fertility by causing agglutination of sperm. Antibodies against natural components of the body can also be generated, inducing an autoimmune response and subsequent destruction of the tissue (i.e. in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, lupus erythematosus or rheumatoid arthritis). (DM+GK+JA) ANTICODON: Complementary to the codon of triplet code on a tRNA attracted to a complementary codon on mRNA. (JA) ANTICOPYRIGHT: A term referring to new publications which are legally open to duplication and distribution to the widest possible audience. Poor nations are those most in need of ethical, environmental, social and medical information and resources. Anticopyright status may only be limited to poorer nations or non-profit organizations, in order to maintain economic incentives. Activist and subversive literature often bears an anticopyright label, and the internet has provided a free platform for many of the scientific and medical journals. (See COPYRIGHT, ANTI-PATENTING) (MP) ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS: Drugs for the treatment and control of depressive illness. There exist three major groups of antidepressant drugs the monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, the tricyclic antidepressants and the latest generation serotonin re-uptake inhibitors. The latter are favored for their selective action, since the tricyclics affect a broader range of neurotransmitter systems, and MAO inhibitors can potentially interact dangerously with certain food constituents. Lithium is also used to treat bipolar disorder (manic depression), and various herbal remedies (e.g. St. John’s Wort) are also used to combat depression. (See SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS, PROZAC, LITHIUM, MONOAMINE OXIDASE, BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS) (IP+MP) ANTIDOTE: A drug which neutralizes poisons and their effects. Antidotes may react chemically to produce harmless compounds, act mechanically to prevent absorption, or perform physiologically to produce opposite effects to the poison. Usually the stomach should also be pumped to remove the poison (and the occasionally toxic antidote), however not when this may cause damage in patients who have ingested caustic agents. (See POISON) (MP) ANTIGEN: A foreign protein/polysaccharide, initiates immune response to form antibodies specific to it. (JA) ANTI-GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT: A global collective of concerned people remarkable for its breadth and diversity, including workers groups, industrial unions, human rights advocates, social workers, ethicists, environmentalists, socialists, anarchists, anti-capitalists, the anti-war movement, green movement, advocates of fair trade, forgiveness of third world debt, anti-patenting of pharmaceuticals/genes, workers rights and ecology, including people from mainstream society in both the developed and developing worlds. Commentators on the globalization debate in no particular order include George Monbiot, Susan George, Edward Herman, Naomi Klein, Anita Roddick, Ralph Nader, Charles Handy, John Ralston Saul, Francis Fukuyama, Samuel Huntington, John Micklethwait, Lester Thurow, Noam Chomsky, Michael Albert, Michael Moore, David Ransom, John Pilger, Vandana Shiva, Maria Mies, Joseph Stiglitz, David Pearce, Hunter Lovins and others. The anti-globalization movement dramatically increased its presence in the media and public consciousness with the 1999 Seattle protest gathering during the World Trade Organization conference, marred by rioting and security clashes. One section of the anti-globalization movement believes that any system which has lost control of what’s good, freedom, justice, human rights, responsonal trade agreements and global institutions (f sustainable development, global equity and etOBEDIENCE, PROTEST, PROGRESS, GLOBAL VILLAGE) (MP) ANTIHISTAMINES: Drugs which block the histamine receptors of cells to prevent allergic response. Antihistamines are used to treat allergic rhinitis (hay-fever), allergic rashes, asthma, and the common cold. Side effects may include sleepiness, dizziness and dry mouth. (See ANTIBIOTICS) (MP) ANTIMISSILE: A missile or other defensive measure, which involves the interception and destruction of attacking enemy missiles. (MP) ANTIOXIDANTS: are substances which delay the oxidation (spoilage) of matter, for example, raw vegetable oils contain natural antioxidants which reduce the speed of deterioration. Antioxidants are deliberately added to prepacked foods and drugs in order to delay degradation by oxidation and increase their shelf-lives. The consumer is often led to believe that vitamin supplements having antioxidant properties should be taken daily, however, the rationale for daily use of such products has not been established. In general, healthy adult men and non-pregnant women consuming a normal varied diet do not need vitamin supplements. (See VITAMINS; FREE RADICALS). (IP) ANTI-PATENTING: A term referring to the movement against the patenting of products which increase environmental quality and social wellbeing. Products designed for sale in the developed world can be beyond the economic reach of people in less developed nations, for example drug patents prevent equitable availability to those living with HIV or dying of other diseases. The free or economically-scaled release of such bioethical products should be encouraged and subsidised. (See PATENT, ANTICOPYRIGHT) (MP) ANTIPSYCHOTIC DRUGS: Drugs used to treat severe mental illnesses such as aggressive psychosis, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, mania and severe depression. They usually normalize the action of dopamine and possibly other neurotransmitters. Although antipsychotics can save people from the need for incarceration, they may have serious side effects such as dyskinesia (tremors), ataxia (staggering), seizures and lethargy. It is perhaps well to bear in mind that one-third to one-half of psychotic patients improve symptomatically - or show constructive personality change - without prescribed medication. When assessing drug effectiveness care must be taken to include adequate control groups - either untreated or treated by another type of therapy in order to avoid possible long-term risk. (See COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPY, LITHIUM) (IP+ MP) 'ANTISENSE' RNA: RNA that is complementary to the nucleotide sequence of normal mRNA. It therefore forms a duplex with the mRNA preventing the mRNA being used in protein synthesis, thus indirectly controlling gene expression. (DM) ANTI-REDUCTIONISM:
Reductionism, a doctrine deriving from Auguste Comte, says that
"higher-level" sciences can always be reduced, ie explained
in terms of "lower-level" or more fundamental ones. Thus
sociology is explained in terms of psychology, which is explained
in terms of physiology, which is explained in terms of biology,
which is explained in terms of chemistry, which is explained in
terms of physics, which is explained in terms of mathematics. Thus
all history, international relations, human relations and our mental
and emotional lives are really matters of particle physics formulated
mathematically. Genetic Reductionism is just a special case of reductionism
explaining human life in terms of molecular genetics. ANTI-SEMITISM: Semites are a loosely interrelated group of populations speaking similar languages, including Hebrew, Arabic, and such Ethiopian languages as Geez, Amharic and Tigrinya. But "Anti-Semitism" usually means the hatred of Jews. Anti-Semitism was a central doctrine in Nazi ideology. (FL) ANTISOCIAL: Antisocial behavior conflicts with societal expectations, and may range from harmless eccentricity, through rudeness and negativity, to aggressive or psychotic behavior. (See ASOCIAL) (MP) ANTIVIVISECTION: A movement against invasive experimentation or teaching using live animals. Nowadays, the movement has taken more moderate forms, such as the Fund for the Replacement of Animals in Medical Experimentation, which teaches the "Three R's": Replacement (of animals with tissue cultures and computer modeling), Reduction (of the number of animals used in each trial), and Refinement (of experimentation by less painful methods). The publish a scientific journal called Alternatives to Laboratory Animals , and other journals also exist. (FL) ANTI-WAR MOVEMENT: See PEACE MOVEMENT. ANXIETY: (Latin anxietas) anticipation of impending dread, danger or misfortune not associated with an apparent stimulus and accompanied by tension, restlessness and other adrenaline-generated physiological symptoms such as increased heart rate, throat tension, gut cramps, tremors, cold sweats and insomnia. Psychological symptoms are subjective and often "free-floating". Typical signs of psychological distress include irritability, sensitivity to constructive criticism, uneasiness about the future, feelings of uncertainty and helplessness, unconscious conflict regarding life’s essential values and goals. Anxiety disorders are complex and may take different forms (generalized anxiety, separation anxiety, panic anxiety, situational anxiety, for example) with separate etiological variables. Anti-anxiety drugs (anxiolytics), by helping to control the physiological symptoms, provide relief. The definitive treatment, however, rests with addressing the underlying cause(s) for example changes in health, self-concept or environment, maturational crises or subconscious conflicts. Anxiety differs from depression, but is typically linked to all forms of depressive illness. (See FEAR, ANXIOLYTICS, DEPRESSION, GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME) (IP+MP) ANXIOLYTICS: Anti-anxiety drugs, including sedatives and minor tranquillizers, used temporarily to treat panic and anxiety reactions in conjunction with counseling to address related underlying life-factors. (See ANXIETY) (MP) ANZECC: Australia and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council. APARTHEID: A political system in which people of different races are separated. In the past in South Africa for much of the twentieth century. (DM) APATHY: A state of not caring; not wanting to know; complacency; indifference; to ignore; disinterested in contemplation; anesthetized by popular culture; a postmodern intellectual narcosis; compassion fatigue; too lazy; too busy; self-indulgence; limited choices in work and leisure-time; non-reflection, non-deliberation and subconscious blocking of distressing information. Apathy is less ethically excusable than ignorance. Apathy implies at least subconscious knowledge of the truth - if those who know will not take action, then those who don’t know certainly won’t, and those who are the subject of oppression or ethical concern usually can’t. (See IGNORANCE, UNCERTAINTY) (MP) APE: A class of biological organisms that are primates. Homo sapiens , chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans and so-called Great Apes. (See GREAT APE PROJECT). (DM) APGAR SCORE: The evaluation of an infant’s physical condition, usuallybody color) that reflect the infant’s ability to adjust to extrauterine life. The initial scores are for color and respiratory effort, and if the infant’s respiratory and circulatory changes have been completed satisfactorily, the muscle tone and reflex responses can b The system was developed by the American Anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar (1909-1974) for the rapid identification osopharyngeal passage) or transfer to an intensive care unit. (IP) APHRODITE: In Greek mythology the Goddess who represented sexual love and the joy of life. She represented two kinds of love - the satisfaction of the fleshly desires and the essential quality of good in the person who loves to perfection. (see VENUS) (IP) APOCALYPSE: The end of the world. (DM) APOPTOSIS: (Greek: apo 'away' + ptosis 'falling') Programmed cell death is the mechanism whereby damaged, malfunctioning or unnecessary cells can be removed from the body. All animal cells carry an intrinsic genetic "death" program which is important in growth and development, and in the repair and maintenance of mature body tissues. Apoptosis is not a cause of aging; however defects in this system may contribute to age-related processes. (IP) APPLIED ETHICS: If theoretical ethics studies the meaning of ethical terminology and the foundations of ethical thinking, applied ethics studies the application of ethical reasoning in real life. The distinction is the same as that between Foundational Bioethics (studying the foundations of bioethical reasoning in culture, spirituality, religion, law and philosophy) and Applied Bioethics (including clinical medical and nursing ethics, environmental ethics, research ethics, etc.) There is a philosophical journal called Applied Ethics. (See APPLIED MATHEMATICS, APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY) (FL) APPLIED MATHEMATICS: The study of the mathematical techniques used to solve problems; that is, the application of mathematics to existing systems. (See APPLIED ETHICS, APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY) (IP) APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY: That part of psychology which places its knowledge to effect in practical situations. Important branches of psychology which emphasize practical rather than theoretical approaches are educational psychology, clinical psychology, child psychology and industrial/occupational psychology. (See APPLIED MATHEMATICS, APPLIED ETHICS) (IP) AQUABOT: Aquatic robots, or autonomous underwater vehicles. These small devices can navigate in three dimensions and use sensors to collect oceanographic data, carry out underwater mapping, measure effluent pollutants, gather military intelligence or sweep mines. Future generations of aquabots may be schooled to create a moving sensor array, and of course may also potentially be weaponized. (See ROBOT) (MP) AQUACULTURE: (Latin: aqua 'water' + culture) A form of agriculture where plants and animals are cultures in farms in fresh water bodies. When seawater is used then it is called mariculture. In fish farming areas fishes like Tilapia and other commercially valuable fishes can be cultured. In a marine ecosystem shell fishes like Perna viridis (green mussel) oysters are cultivated as a commercial enterprise. (JA)
AQUINAS, THOMAS:
(1225? -1274) The greatest of the medieval
Scholastic
philosophers, canonised as Saint Thomas by the Catholic Church.
His philosophy is called
Thomism
. The
Scholastics
were Catholics who were known for their detailed, logical debates,
often dwelling on fine and seemingly sterile distinctions to the
point that they have been accused of "hair splitting".
It was joked about them that they would debate for years about how
many angels could dance on the point of a pin. The joke is unfair.
Aquinas' detailed method of question and argument did not always
lead to results. But -- like mathematical games -- it engendered
habits of careful and penetrating logical thinking, which became
part of the European intellectual tradition. ARBITRARY: Uncertain; random; accidental; discretionary; outside of central relevance to the methodology, law or principle, therefore accepting of individual choice and subjectivity. (MP) ARBITRATION: The hearing and resolution of a dispute by a person or legal body (arbitrator) chosen by the disputing parties or appointed by government statute. (See MEDIATION, NEGOTIATION, FACILITATION, DISPUTE) (MP) AREA OF OCCUPANCY: See POPULATION DISTRIBUTION. ARETAIC ETHICS: The principle of centrality of employing moral agents as the basis of change. (JA) ARISTOTLE:
(c. 384-322 BC) Perhaps the most famous of Greek philosophers, he
influenced Islamic, Jewish and Christian philosophy. Author of works
on logic, philosophy, natural science, ethics, politics and poetics.
He believed in living according to a "middle road" between
extremes (an idea which is also found in Buddhist writings, leading
to the question whether it began in Greece or much farther East).
He thought that the most ethical life is the life of intellectual
activity, in which we become most similar to and beloved by the
gods. His main ethical works, the Nicomachean Ethics and the Politics,
were the crowning finale to a massive corpus including logic, scientific
method, philosophy of mathematics, physics, biology and metaphysics.
This raises the question whether todays specialized BA, MA and PhD
programmes in ethics are the best way to educate bioethicists. Perhaps
they should start with more science and substantive philosophy,
like Aristotle. ARITHMETIC: The study and the understanding of the structure of the number system and the skills necessary to manipulate numbers in order to solve problems. Numbers may be manipulated to advantage from one form to another, for example, fractions to decimals. (See ALGEBRA, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTIC) (IP) ART see also ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY ARTHROPODA: Name of a phylum in the animal kingdom. Animals (arthropods) that have joined appendages. E.g. Fly, Crabs, Millipedes, Scorpions etc. (JA) ARTIFICIAL: Created, produced or imitated by humans. Not occurring in nature, or not the genuine article. Artificial creations such as new chemical products, newly designed drugs or genetically modified organisms may have unpredictable effects on biological or ecological systems, as they have not been tested by any previous evolutionary process. (See ARTIFICIAL LIFE, GENETIC ENGINEERING) (MP) ARTIFICIAL FEEDING: Feeding other than by mouth. The terms, Enteral feeding, Parenteral feeding, and Tube feeding are used. (DM) ARTIFICIAL HABITAT: ‘Artificial habitat’ is sometimes used in an extreme envich included humansearch on the safety of artificial habitats will be required before colonization of the moon becomes realistic. (See HABITAT, BIOSPHERE 2 PROJECT, INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION) (MP) ARTIFICIAL HYMEN: a synthetic membrane that is stitched in place to seal the vagina before the marriage ceremony. The operation is practiced in cultures where virginity (virtue) at marriage is regarded as desirable or even mandatory. (IP) ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION: The introduction of sperm into a woman's vagina or uterus by noncoital methods, for the purpose of conception. The procedure is done either with semen from an anonymous donor (artificial insemination by donor or AID) or from semen provided by the partner or husband (artificial insemination by husband AIH). AID is recommended when the partner is infertile or in cases in which he is a carrier of a serious genetic defect. Assuming normal fertility in the female, tested donor semen results in a pregnancy in 70% of the cases and is, therefore, one of the major treatments for male infertility. The procedure does not carry an increased risk of spontaneous abortion or congenital anomalies. AIH has a much lower success rate but is useful in cases of paraplegia (sperm is collected by electroejaculation), obstructed vas deferens or epididymis (sperm is aspirated from the epididymis) and forced separation of couples (prisoners on long-term sentences). AI as a technique has been practiced for centuries as a tool in livestock production and its application has been broadened to include conservation programs for endangered species. The first recorded human birth after AIH was in 1790 when the Scottish physician John Hunter inseminated a woman with epididymal sperm from her husband who had urethral defect. (see artificial insemination by husband, ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY) (IP, DM) ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION BY HUSBAND: The procedure is used in cases of paraplegia, obstructed vas deferens or epididymis and forced separation. It is also used widely for idiopathic (cause unknown) infertility. Between 15-30% of women become pregnant during six insemination (menstrual) treatment cycles, significantly less successful compared with donor insemination purporting a reported 60% birth rate after six insemination cycles. (See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION, DONOR INSEMINATION) (DM+IP) ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES: Many ‘artificial’ or ‘auxiliary’ languages have been invented and used to facilitate international communication and understanding. These have included Volap¸k (‘World language’ 1880), Esperanto (‘Lingvo Internacia’ 1887), Idiom Neu986). Natural languages have been modified or simplified, for example Latino Sine Flexione (Latin without inflections) and BASIC English ('British American Scientific International Commercial English') with its selective 850 word vocabulary. Other languages have evolved (e.g. slang and jargon), merged (e.g. pidgins and creoles), been developed by necessity (e.g. sign language and shorthand) or for specialized purposes such as computer programming (e.g. Basic, Pascal and Java). Other artificial languages are just plain fun, for example Solresol ('Langue Musicale Universelle'), whose syllables are based on the musical tones such that it can be spoken, sung or played. (See ESPERANTO, PIDGIN, LINGUISTICS, SEMIOTICS, MULTIMODAL COMMUNICATION, TRANSLATION SOFTWARE) (MP) ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the computer modeling and software simulation of human intelligence and other mental processes. Such intelligence would include holding a conversation, problem-solving, thought processing, object manipulation, playing chess, writing stories, translating, speech recognition, pattern recognition (vision), interactivity and learning. Current commercial AI has been slow to match the science fiction dreamers in simulating human mental functions. However, the evolution of technology is accelerating and tends to progress in sudden surges. ‘Expert Systems’ and ‘Decision-Support Systems’ are the practical application of AI research. They are used for solving problems and making decisions in a particular domain, for example ‘Cyc’ is inn of AI. Bionics, cybernetics and the cyborg are medical applications of AI. Combination of all these technological features of intelligence is called the ‘top-down’ approach to AI, whereas the ‘bottom-up’ approach is the endowment of ‘Artificial Life’ with the powers of replication, adaptation, learning and self-evolution. Popular science fiction such as Hollywood’s Matrix have presented the possibility of the human species being superseded by the evolution of artificial intelligence. Despite skepticism, scientific risk-analysis and ethical debate is required because of the extreme consequences to humanity from such a scenario. Scientific and philosophical debate has not been able to rule out the possibility of silicon-based life - works such as The Emperor’s New Mind by Roger Penrose which have tried to refute the possibility have had their assumptions criticized. It seems that certain thresholds or previous limits to the creation of artificial intelligence are likely to be breached by advances in quantum computing, nanotechnology and/or molecular electronics. These advances combine immense increases in processing power with the replication and manipulation of molecules and atoms, and add carbon (organic molecules) to the traditional silicon of microcircuits. Whether or not all definitional requirements for ‘life’ or ‘intelligence’ are met, something much like these things is on the technological horizon. Even today, non-sentient information databases and other computerized technology are taking over our daily transactions – whether individually (automated workplace, privacy, ‘Big Brother’) or collectively (over-reliance on technology). (See ARTIFICIAL LIFE, EXPERT SYSTEM, ROBOTICS, ROBOT ETHICS, INTELLIGENCE, CYBORG, BIONICS, BIG BROTHER, DEEP BLUE, TURING TEST) (MP) ARTIFICIAL LIFE: Software and hardware which has similar characteristics to living organisms. The ‘top-down’ approac out to be quite cute, for example the camera and gyroscope-faced ‘Cog’ and ‘Kismet’, or the insect-like heat-sensing six-legged ‘Genghis’Ö but endowed with artificial intelligence in a terrain of unmanned vehicles and autonomous weapons it is a different story. The opposing mode of research into artificial life is the ‘bottom-up’ approach, which allows artificial life to create itself through the powers of evolution. Using nature as the model, programs such as ‘genetic algorithms’ and ‘cellular automata’ are created with. Examples of ear internet, with iintranets and firlar electronics atween natural selection in organisms/cells and that of cellular automata is that biological evolution selects among random variations, whereas variation in artificial life may be heuristically directed . The potential ethical danger from this is that artificial life can evolve at an incredibly greater speed than any biological system. The internet provides a very difficult-to-control habitat with a rich informational database, and could perhaps eventually support a very diverse form of cyber-ecology or central intelligence. (See LIFE, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, INTELLIGENT AGENT, CELLULAR AUTOMATA, COMPUTER VIRUS, WORM, ROBOTICS, ROBOT BUSH) (MP) ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS: Computational models which emulate biological neural networks. Artificial neural networks contain components and functions analogous to neurons, for example the processing element (nucleus), network node (soma), inputs (dendrites), output (axon) and signal weight (synapse), though without all of the layers of complexity of biology. Artificial neural networks are associative memory systems using inductive reasoning, self-organization and parallel processing similar to the human brain. They are driven by data, and function by scanning many case studies for common patterns. They can function despite the presence of ambiguity by using induction, associative memory or fuzzy logic. (See NEURAL COMPUTING, NEURAL NETWORKS, SWARM INTELLIGENCE, GENETIC ALGORITHMS, SMART DUST) (MP) ARTIFICIAL ORGANS: Medical devices used as replacement for body tissues. (See ORGAN TRANSPLANTS) (DM) ASBESTOSIS: See SILICOSIS. ASCORBIC ACID: See VITAMIN C. ASEAN: Association of South East Asian Nations. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Reproduction of organisms by purely vegetative means without the function and interaction of the two sexes. Examples of commonly asexually reproduced plants are roses, peach trees, and lilies. All plants can produce vegetatively, but many normally use sexual reproduction. (DM+IP) ASHKENAZI
JEWS:
"Ashkenaz" means Germany in Hebrew and "Sefarad"
means Spain. In popular language Ashkenazi Jews are those whose
ancestors lived during the exile in Northern Europe, while -- because
many Spanish Jews fled eastward after the expulsion of the Jews
from Spain in 1492, Sefaradi Jews are thought of as those from North
Africa and the Middle East. But this is a misconception because
many Spanish Jews fled to Northern Europe after the expulsion, and
many so-called Ashkenazi Jews are descended from them. Also, many
North African and Middle Eastern Jews are descended from families
who were never in Spain. These include most notably the "Bavlim"
(Babylonians) who were in Iraq since Biblical times, the Yemenites,
who were in Yemen since Biblical times or shortly thereafter, and
Israeli families who have been in Israel continuously since Biblical
times. There are also communities who were never either in Europe
or the Middle East before they immigrated to Israel. These include
the Ethiopian community, and the Kochinim (from Kerala in Southwest
India) who were in their exilic homelands at least since the time
of the Second Temple. ASOCIAL: Asocial behavior refers to withdrawal from society, including inhibition, inconsideration and avoidance of others. It may often be accompanied by anxiety and depression. (See ANTISOCIAL) (MP) ASPHYXIA: (Greek: a + sphyxis 'without pulse') Severe reduction of oxygen in the blood resulting in loss of consciousness and, if not reversed, death. Causes can be varied; for example, drowning, inhalation of toxic gas or smoke, poisoning and blockage of respiratory tract. The condition is of specific concern in some newborns where it may develop during labor or immediately after delivery due to, for example, prematurity or the effects of anesthetics and analgesics. (see INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION and HYPOXIA) (IP) ASPHYXIATION: (Greek a 'without' + sphyxis pulse) Suspension of breathing due to an abnormally low oxygen concentration in the lungs. The condition may be brought about by a) obstruction to the passage of air to and from the lungs as in drowning, presence of foreign bodies/malignant growths in the air passages, b) insufficient oxygen supply in the air, c) poisonous (asphyxiant) chemical substances causing suffocation. Whatever the cause severe hypoxia, if not corrected quickly, leads to hypoxia risking brain damage, irreversible paralysis and ultimately death. (See HYPOXIA) (IP) ASPIRIN: Acetylsalicylic acid (C9 H8 O4) probably the most widely used over-the-counter analgesic bought for headache, dental pain and symptomatic relief in flu. It has been the mainstay of pain relief for 100 years but despite this its mechanism of action is not fully understood, however, it seems to reduce pain by acting on blood platelets which are involved in the process of inflammation. For this reason aspirin is also a mainstay in arthritis and is valuable in forestalling heart attacks; however, it does not offer heart-attack protection. Aspirin is the standard against which other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are measured. It is important to take the medication with food to prevent gastrointestinal irritation. (See ANALGESIC; CORTICOSTEROIDS) (IP) ASSASSINATION: (Assassin from Arabic hashshashin 'hash eaters') The surprise murder of a prominent political or public figure for the purposes of making a statement or otherwise changing the course of human events. Rightly branded as terrorism during times of peace, assassination may become common practice during times of war. National non-assassination policies should be encouraged, especially in Western democracies. International systems of justice and intervention should be empowered to provide just and legal alternative means. (MP) ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY (ART): Infertility treatment where "assisted" means "technologically assisted" which include Ovulation Induction, Artificial Insemination (AI), In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) and subsequent Embryo Transfer (ET), Gamete IntraFallopian transfer (GIFT), sperm microinjection techniques such as IntraCytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI), Fallopian tube transfer of ICSI eggs (FICIT), Cytoplasmic Transfer, frozen preservation and storage (Cryopreservation) of sperm, eggs and embryos and their subsequent thawing and transfer as in Frozen Embryo Transfer (FET), the use of donated sperm, eggs and embryos (Tissue Banking), Surrogacy, and any other form of medical or surgical treatment that may be used to assist in establishing and/or maintaining a pregnancy. Cloning technology is not medically available (see separate entry for each technology). (See Individual entries) (IP) ASSISTED SUICIDE: Provision of information and/or the means to enable a patient to take his or her own life. (See also EUTHANASIA) (DM) ASSUMPTION: 1. An axiom or statement, not necessarily true but put forward and taken to be true to enable further analysis of a hypothesis, or for the purposes of investigating what follows in relation to a theory. 2. A presupposition, or the basis of an assertion, required to be true for the assertion to be true. Assumptions are often unstated or even unknown, but implied by the associated theory or argument. Almost all thought processes and knowledge are based upon some assumptions. (See AXIOM, THEORY, HYPOTHESIS, CONJECTURE, PREMISES) (MP) ASTHMA: Asthma, or a pathological shortness of breath, can be treated by various drugs. MAIMONIDES(q.v.) in his medieval Treatise on Asthma, maintained that it can be treated psychosomatically, by calming the mind. One of the authors of this dictionary has cured himself of an addiction to an asthma inhaltor of over twenty years, by combining breathing from Yoga and from Japanese martial arts. He inhales through the mouth, for a count of seven, drawing the air down to the "tanden", w h ich is the centre point between the naval and the pubic bone, and allowing the air to expand the lower abdomen. Then, without releasing any air, he switches to breathing in through the nose, again for a count of seven, but this time expanding the chest a nd (imagining the chest to be open at the bottom like an upturned barrel) drawing air up from the tanden into the upper chest. He then holds his breath for a count of seven, and then while counting again to seven, releases it through the nose. He does t his excercise while standing and raising his arms higher, and higher, in order to open the chest as much as possible. He also does it while sitting in Japanese "seiza" position, either raising the arms, or simply letting them rest on his lap. This metho d has not yet undergone controlled clinical trial. ( See CORTISOL) (FL) ASTROBIOLOGY: Astrobiology and exobiology are the study of and search for potential life or biological activity outside the boundaries of the planet’s biosphere; its possible characteristics, location, likelihood and relevance to the origins of life on Earth itself. (See ALIEN LIFE, ORIGIN OF LIFE) (MP) ASTRONAUT: The astronaut or cosmonaut is an intrepid human visitor outside of the Earth’s atmosphere into space. (See SPACE EXPLORATION, EARTH FROM SPACE) (MP) ASTROLOGY: Art or science of determining the purported influence of the stars and other heavenly bodies on human affairs. (MR) ASTRONOMICAL UNIT: A unit of distance in space, defined as the mean distance from the center of the Earth to that of the Sun, or about 149.6 million kilometers. (See LIGHT YEAR) (MP) ASTRONOMY: The science of the stars and space. Astronomy includes the universe as a whole (cosmology), its component matter, energy and interactions (astrophysics) and often the philosophical theory beyond the math (metaphysics). (See COSMOLOGY, ASTROPHYSICS, ASTROBIOLOGY, METAPHYSICS) (MP) ASTROPHYSICS: The physics, chemistry, mathematics and metaphysics of the stars and the universe. (See COSMOLOGY, ASTRONOMY) (MP) ASYLUM: 1. a place of sanctuary, a refuse (see women’s shelter) 2. A place used for the detention and treatment of the mentally ill. (see INSANITY) (IP) ATHEIST: Someone who does not believe in the existence of God. (DM) ATMOSPHERE: The envelope of gases and particles surrounding the Earth, within which are maintained homeostatic conditions for life. Environmental indicators for the atmosphere usually concern air quality or climate. The troposphere is the lower atmosphere up to about 20km, in which minor gases, particles, water vapour and carbon dioxide have a significant effect and where most weather takes place. The stratosphere is from about 20-50km and contains much of the ozone layer. Above that are the mesosphere and thermosphere before the vacuum of space. (See GLOBAL WARMING, GREENHOUSE EFFECT) (MP) ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION: See AIR POLLUTION. ATOM: The atom is the building block of matter. An atom is composed of positive protons and non-charged neutrons in its nucleus, surrounded by shields of negative electrons. All atoms of an element are different from the atoms of another element. The atomic number of an element is its positive charge - the number of protons in its atoms. The protons and neutrons are composed of different types of quarks. Atoms can emit energy and radiation. (See ATOM BOMB, ELEMENT, QUARK) (MP) ATOM BOMB: Bomb in which the explosive power, measured in terms of equivalent TNT, is provided by the nuclear fission of material such as 135Uranium or 239 Plutonium. The bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was of this type. The most tragic moment in human history was fifteen minutes past eight on the morning of August 6, 1945 when the first atom bomb ever was dropped on the earth and exploded above Hiroshima city. That one explosion reduced the entire city to ashes and 247,000 lives were instantly wiped out. Gamma rays and neutrons produced by atomic explosions penetrate deeply into animal tissues causing immediate death or delayed effects, known as radiation sickness, observed as internal bleeding, vomiting, diarrhea and skin lesions which may become evident months after exposure. Moreover, the offspring of those exposed to radiation may be affected by harmful mutations that can reappear in future generations. The post-war Japanese constitution completely renounces war and advocates permanent peace for the world something that had never been done before in the history of humankind. The Japanese people accepted the Potsdam Declaration in a spirit of repentance for the destruction and misery inflicted upon a large number of human beings by the militaristic Japan of the war years. (See HYDROGEN BOMB; NUCLEAR WINTER; NUCLEAR FISSION; NUCLEAR FUSION; NEUTRON BOMB, PLUTONIUM) (IP) ATOMIC POWER: Using the energy that is created when an atom is divided, especially for electricity production. (DM) ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD): is the latest term designating a chronic disorder that begins early in childhood and is manifested by problems of awareness, difficulty with attention, excessive motor activity (hyperactivity) and poor impulse control (impulsiveness). It is among the most common causes of behavioral disturbances, estimated to affect 3-5% of school-age children with highest risk in boys. Symptoms associated with ADHD (although not called this at the time) were first described in 1902 by British pediatrician George Still. Still, correctly, suggested that behaviors he had observed amongst certain children in his practice were not caused by bad parenting but a subtle unidentified brain injury. Recent evidence points to a brain-based biological disorder where a possible genetic predisposition is activated by stressful environmental factors. Environmental factors such as hypoxia, pre-, peri- and postnatal trauma have been implicated, as has exposure to toxic substances such as alcohol, cocaine, nicotine, marijuana and lead. ADHD individuals have lower than normal levels of selected neurotransmitters, dopamine in particular, which means that the brain will metabolize more slowly. (See BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS, RITALIN HYDROCHLORIDE) (IP) AUGUSTINE: (354-430, Numidia), also called Saint Augustine of Hippo, original Latin name was Aurelius Augustinus. Was one of the Latin Fathers of the Catholic Church, one of the Doctors of the Church, and is considered by many as the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul. Augustine's adaptation of classical thought to Christian teaching created a theological system of great power and lasting influence. His numerous written works, the most important of which are Confessions and City of God , shaped the practice of biblical exegesis and helped lay the foundation for much of medieval and modern Christian thought. More than five million words of his writings survive. He adapted Platonic tradition to Christian concepts. (DM) AUNG SAN SUU KYI: See SUU KYI, AUNG SAN. AURA:
An aura is a kind of light which seems to surround human beings.
It may also surround animals, plants and even inanimate objects.
Kirlian photography, invented in Russia, seems to be a method to
photograph auras. People may have varying degrees of ability to
see auras, or to read their meanings. The
halo,
seen in Christian and Buddhist religious paintings, seems to have
been an aura, representing the strong light which highly spiritual
people seem to project. The
lehat,
or light surrounding the sword which protected the Biblical Garden
of Eden (Genesis III, 24) may also have been an aura.
AUSCHWITZ: In Polish Oswiecim, also called Auschwitz-Birkenau. Nazi Germany's largest concentration camp included a prison, an extermination camp, and a slave-labour camp. Auschwitz has become the symbolic site of the “final solution,” a virtual synonym for the Holocaust. Newly arrived prisoners at the death camp were divided in a process known as Selektion . The young and the able-bodied were sent to work. Young children and their mothers and the old and infirm were sent directly to the gas chambers. Thousands of prisoners were also selected by the camp doctor, Josef MENGELE, for medical experiments. Auschwitz doctors tested methods of sterilization on the prisoners using massive doses of radiation, uterine injections, and other barbaric procedures. Experiments involving the killing of twins, upon whom autopsies were performed, were meant to provide information that would supposedly lead to the rapid expansion of the “Aryan race.” Subject to harsh conditions—including inadequate shelter and sanitation—given minimal food, and worked to exhaustioto Auschwitz. Between 1.1 and 1.5 million people died at Auschwitz; 90 percent of them were Jews. Also among the dead were gypsies .Auschwitz was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. (DM) AUSTIN, J: See ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY. AUSTRALASIA: The land masses of Oceania in the South Pacific together with Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and associated islands (Latin australis = southern + Asia). (IP) AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINAL:
The indigenous Australians believe that they have been in Australia
since the Dreamtime or Creation. Although their origin is still
unsubstantiated scientifically, it is hypothesized that they migrated
from the South East Asian region more that 50,000 years ago when
the sea was at its lowest levels and more exposed land enabled such
a crossing (see GONDWANA). AUSTRALOPITHIECUS: Apaleoanthropological studies have identified many human like fossils and fossil humans.It is a prehuman fossil, also called The Ape Man, was located in south and East Africa, dating back to about 5 million years ago. It exhibits bipedalism, has protruding jaws and a small brain cavity. When compared to the bigger cranial cavity of Modern Homo sapiens. (JA) AUTHORITARIAN: Demanding total obedience and refusing to allow people freedom to act as they wish. (DM) AUTISM: (Greek autos "self") a little understood rare (4 in 10,000 live births) mental disorder first named by Leo Kanner, an American psychiatrist, in 1943. The condition is characterized by extreme social withdrawal and inability to communicate verbally or emotionally with people. Impairment of social interactions may be due to an abnormal interest in fantasy engendered by delusions and hallucinations resembling schizophrenic withdrawal in adults. The onset of this pervasive developmental disorder may be in infancy or early childhood and is characterized by internally-stimulated thinking where ideas have a private meaning and abnormal ways of relating to people, objects and situations. Recent findings suggest that organic, rather than psychological, injuries in the limbic system (the brain's emotional center) might explain some elements of autistic behavior. Although far more autistic children have sub-normal levels in IQ than would be expected from the normal continuum of all levels of intelligence, a small number possess superior intelligence and/or certain skills related to their lateral thinking or highly-focused attention on aspects of interest. The best educational approach is thought to be sympathetic but formal instruction. (IP+MP) AUTOGRAFT: (Greek autos "self" + graphion "stylus") a permanent transplantation of any tissue from one site of the body to another site in the same individual. Autografting is typically used in medical surgery such as the replacement of lost skin in cases of severe burns, or in plastic surgery such as the remodeling of facial features. (See ALLOGRAFT, XENOGRAFT) (IP) AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE: A disorder in which the immune system fails to recognize self and directs an immune response against its own body tissues. Among human autoimmune diseases in which components of the body are attacked by its own immune system are rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis and myasthenia gravis (muscle weakness). (IP) AUTOMATIC WEAPONS: Automatic weapons enable rapid fire by using some of the explosive energy to eject the shell and automatically reload the next bullet into the chamber. An automatic weapon fires in a continuous stream for as long as the trigger is depressed. A semi-automatic weapon fires one bullet for each click of the trigger. Mobile or mounted automatic weapons of varying sizes are also known as machine guns. The smaller sub-machine gun is designed for portability and flexibility, with lightweight frame and short barrel usually firing pistol ammunition. Many non-violent countries restrict or severely regulate civilian ownership of automatic weapons. (See SMALL ARMS, AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS) (MP) AUTOMATON: (Greek: automatos 'acting of itself') An early term for a mechanical device or simple robot able to self-perform or imitate real-life actions. Sometimes used as derogatory for a person who goes through life with a mechanically predictable and ordinary routine. Descartes argued that animals may also be mere automata, wholly governed by the laws of physics. (See ROBOT, CELLULAR AUTOMATA) (MP) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: The motor nerve fibers supplying the glands, organs and smooth muscles of the vertebrate body, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems; the elements of the nervous system which automatically manage the functions of internal organs such as pulse and digestion. (See CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM) (MP) AUTONOMOUS: Ability to operate on one’s own. (See AUTONOMY) (MP) AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLE: See AQUABOT. AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS: An ethically perilous form of missiles and other robotic weapons, endowed with onboard ‘intelligence’ to locate themselves, navigate and destroy the enemy without direct external guidance or tele-operation from humans. Euphemistically called ‘smart’ weapons, they may in fact not be very smart - either in the immediate sense of killing, or in the broader philosophical sense of combining artificial intelligence with weapon systems. (See VIRTUAL WARFARE, ROBOTICS, AUTOMATIC WEAPONS, MISSILES) (MP) AUTONOMY: (Greek: autos 'self' + nomos 'law') The governing of one's self according to one's own system of morals and beliefs. 1. the absence of external constraint and a positive power of self-determination often applied to the right of personal freedom in actions, choices, beliefs and preferences. Bioethics uses autonomy as self rule, though the term self-love has been 2. in political philosophy the right of self-government of community, group or state, to formulate and enforce its own laws, policies and affairs; being independently accountable 3. biological organic independence evolved and controlled by natural laws and not subject to any other. (IP+DM) AUTOPSY: Postmortem examinations. AUTORADIOGRAPHY: A technique that uses X-ray film to visualize radioactively labeled molecules or fragments of molecules. For example it is used in analyzing the length and number of DNA fragments separated by electrophoresis. (DM) AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDERS: Disorders, where for a person to be affected, a mutation has to be inherited from both parents. Such parents are usually unaffected carriers because they only have a single copy of the mutant gene. Recessive disorders commonly have onset in childhood and include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease and thalassaemia. (JA) AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DISORDERS: Disorders where inheritance of a mutation from one parent only (or arising anew during egg or sperm formation) can be sufficient for the person to be affected. Dominant disorders include familial hypercholesterolaemia, Huntington’s Diease, adult polycystic kidney disease and neurofibromatosis. (JA) AUTOSOME: A chromosome not involved in sex determination. A chromosome other than sex chromosomes. The diploid human genome consists of 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. (DM) AUTOTROPHS: (Greek autos 'self' + trophe 'food') Are self-sufficient organisms that are capable of obtaining their energy for life from exclusively inorganic materials, water, and some energy source such as sunlight (photosynthesizing plants) or capture their energy from converting inorganic chemical reactions involving iron or sulfur (autotrophic bacteria). (Contrast HETEROTROPHS) (IP) AUXIN: (Greek: auximos 'promoting growth') A plant growth (cell elongation) regulator/hormone, used in tissue culture = indoleacetic acid (IAA). (JA) AVERAGE: See MEAN. AVES:
(Latin: 'birds') Aves is the zoological class which comprises
the birds. (See BIRDS, ORNITHOLOGY) (MP) AVIAN: Describing bird characteristics and bird life, an avian feature may also refer to a resemblance or relationship with the attributes of birds. (See AVES) (MP) AVICENNA: See IBN SINNA. AWACS: Acronym for 'Airborne Warning and Control System', AWACS perform an important defense function against missile and other military attacks. (See MISSILE DEFENCE) (MP) AWOL: Military acronym for 'Absent Without Leave', although not necessarily implying intentions of desertion. (MP) AXIODRAMA: (Greek: axioma 'hold worthy'). A method of exploring issues of ethics, cosmic relationships or values where the protagonist can review his or her relationship with God, Satan, a guiding spirit, death and so on. (See PSYCHODRAMA; ROLE PLAYING; ROLE REVERSAL) (IP) AXIOM: An assumption or statement assumed true for the purposes of further analysis or deduction. (See ASSUMPTION) (MP) AXON: Each nerve cell has only one axon carrying nerve impulses away from the cell. They are usually longer than the dendrites, sometimes about 100 cm long. (See DENDRITES, NEURON) (IP) AYURVEDA: (lit. "knowledge of life")- A traditional Indian system of medicine and holistic healing. This system is based on the idea of balance of the elements and energies in the body, and recognises the unique constitutional aspects of each individual. The constitutional differences between individuals are expressed in the three dosas, and their combinations (see TRIDOSA). The traditional texts of Ayurveda are written in the Sanskrit language. (AG) AYURVEDIC MEDICINE: Is said to be the oldest medical system on which many other oriental medical systems are based. It is practiced predominantly in India and encompasses several therapeutic modalities (e.g. herbs, massage, diet, yoga and meditation) which aim to redress homeostatic imbalances in the 3 doshas or primary life forces. An emphasis is placed on balancing the physical, spiritual and mental aspects of a person (See AYURVEDA) (JW). |
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