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BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "C"s
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CADAVER:
A dead body.
CADAVER TRANSPLANTS:
Transplants of tissue derived froma cadaver. (See also ORGAN DONATION,
ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION) (DM)
CADAVERIC:
Adj., tissue derived from a dead body/tissue/foetus. (JA)
CAESARIAN:
(Latin
Caesar lex
'Caesar's law'). The surgical removal of a fetus
through an incision in the pregnant woman's abdominal tissue
and uterine wall. In the first labor, the most common reason for
caesarean delivery is when the fetus is too large or the pelvis
too small for a safe vaginal delivery (a condition known as cephalopelvic
disproportion). The second most common reason is fetal distress
and abnormal presentation, such as breech and transverse lie. Although
the risk of caesarean delivery increases slightly with each procedure,
it is considered that there is no limit to the number a woman can
undergo. (DM+IP).
CAFFEINE:
(Arabic
qahwah
"coffee") a bitter crystalline alkaloid drug, C8H10N4O2.H2O,
obtained from coffee, tea, some cola beverages, chocolate and certain
stimulant pharmaceuticals. Caffeine - the most consumed drug in
the world - is a central nervous stimulant and can be prescribed
to counteract migraine, drowsiness and mental fatigue. It should
be used with caution in individuals with heart disease and peptic
ulcer and avoided or reduced to no more than the equivalent of 1-2
cups of brewed coffee per day when trying to conceive and during
pregnancy. Concerns about adverse effects on health have increased
the popularity of decaffeinated coffee or DECAF. (IP)
CALCULUS:
The branch of mathematics that deals with the differentiation and
integration of functions; for example, calculus can be used to find
the rate at which the velocity of a body is changing with time at
a particular instant, or in reverse process finding the end result
of known continuous change. (IP)
CALORIE:
(Latin
calor
'warmth') A unit of energy approximately equal to 4.2
joules. The small calorie (cal) is defined as the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree
Celsius at atmospheric pressure. A kilocalorie (Cal) - also called
large or great calorie - is defined as the amount of energy needed
to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree
Celsius at atmospheric pressure and is the unit used to denote the
heat expenditure of an organism, and the energy value of food. It
should be noted, however, that since the specific thermal capacity
of water changes with temperature, these definitions are not strictly
accurate. (IP)
CANCER:
(Latin
kan'ser
'crab') is not a single disease, but many different diseases
with a common characteristic - abnormal growth, division and proliferation
of cells which, given time, metastasize (spread) from their site
of origin to distant parts of the body. The transformation of normal
cells to cancerous cells is believed to reside in alterations in
DNA but many potential causes are recognized with the mechanism
of action not clearly understood. A mass of cells growing independently
of their previous function is called a tumor or neoplasm. Not all
neoplasms are malignant (cancerous) as some tumors are benign but
not necessarily risk-free. There are many causes of cancer apart
from the general wear and tear of cells due to aging. Prominent
are chemical carcinogens such as tobacco smoke, industrial carcinogens
such as asbestos, ionizing radiation which can induce leukemia and
thyroid cancer, and viruses such as the hepatitis B virus which
is associated with liver cancer and the human papilloma virus associated
with cancer of the cervix. Typically, cancer is a disease of the
elderly, however, lung and breast cancer among younger women is
on the increase. Cancer is not inevitably fatal if identified and
treated early. (See METASTASIS; TUMOUR NECROSIS FACTOR) (IP)
CANE TOAD:
The large South American toad
Bufo marinus
. A failed example of biological control, the cane toad was introduced
into north-eastern Australia as a predator of sugarcane pests, but
became a more significant pest in its own right. The range of the
toad is now from the mid-NSW coast to the Kakadu World Heritage
Area, competing for habitat with native frogs and causing predators
to be poisoned. (See BIOLOGICAL CONTROL) (MP)
CANNABIS:
(Greek:
kannabis
"hemp"). The hemp plants
Cannabis sativa
and
Cannabis indica,
or their flowering buds and leaves. Hemp fibers are a multi-purpose
material useful for the production of a broad range of products.
The exuded resin, dried flowers and leaves are used to produce the
drugs hashish (purified extract) and marijuana - popular for their
euphoric effects. (See HEMP, MARIJUANA, HASHISH, DOPE, THC) (IP)
CANOPY:
The uppermost layers of foliage and branches of the trees in a forest
community, especially in the tropical rainforest where they join
to form a continuous habitat with a large specialized biodiversity.
(See TROPICAL RAINFOREST) (MP)
CAPACITY BUILDING:
A term widely used in humanitarian international development and
reconstruction, ‘capacity building’ refers to the grcapacity
for selfmic support, to security and good governance. (See PEACE
BUILDING, DEVELOPMENT, FOURTH WORLD, MINORITY GROUP, EMPOWERMENT)
(MP)
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT:
The killing (e.g. by hanging, electrocution, lethal injection or
shooting) of a convicted criminal. A significant number of countries
have by now outlawed capital punishment and those which still practise
it use it for fewer crimes, often only murder, than was once the
case. Often cited intrinsic arguments against capital punishment
include the assertion that only God has the right to take human
life. However, in some societies a significant proportion of people
don't believe in God, and, anyway, many religions permit people
to be killed in certain circumstances, e.g. in war. One intrinsic
argument in favour of capital punishment is that the right punishment
for certain crimes - e.g. murder, treason or piracy - is to forfeit
one's life. There are also consequentialist arguments both
for and against capital punishment. Indeed, much of the information
that would be needed to reach a rigorous consequentialist conclusion
is uncertain. For example, does capital punishment act as a significant
deterrent to crime and how often is the wrong person killed under
capital punishment? (MR)
CAPITALISM:
Capitalism is any economic system in which people make money out
of other people's labour. It is generally the goal of capitalists
to make as much money as possible by paying the labourer just a
little less than one needs to support a family. But labour movements
have forced employers, under threat of strikes, sometimes violent,
to be more generous in their salaries. It used to be thought that
socialism was the opposite of capitalism. But deeper analyses (such
as by movements like the Industrial Workers of the World) pointed
out that the leaders of socialist communities or societies are also
living off the work of others, but calling themselves "leaders"
or "managers" or "statesmen" rather than "capitalists".
(FL)
CARBON:
Sixth
ELEMENT
(q.v.) in the Periodic Table. Along with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
and a few other elements, carbon is an essential constituent of
all known life. Chemicals with more than just one or two carbon
atoms are said to be 'organic'. All other chemicals are
inorganic. (MR)
CARBON-BASED ELECTRONICS:
See MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS.
CARBON CHEMISTRY:
See ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
CARBON CREDITS:
See ENVIRONMENTAL COMPENSATION, GLOBAL WARMING.
CARBON CYCLE:
The redistribution of carbon between organisms and the atmospheric,
oceanic and terrestrial compartments. The cycle is primarily driven
by the action of biological processes such as the removal of carbon
from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and its return to the
atmosphere during respiration. Human utilization of fossil fuels
such as oil, natural gas and coal, have resulted in carbon dioxide
being produced and released into the atmosphere faster than it is
being removed by living organisms. (see CARBON, GREENHOUSE EFFECT,
NITROGEN CYCLE, PHOSPHORUS CYCLE) (MP)
CARBON DATING:
See RADIOCARBON DATING.
CARBON DIOXIDE:
(Chemical formula CO2;
Latin
carbo
'coal' + Greek
dis
'twice' and
oxys
'sharp'). A colorless, odorless gas produced naturally
by the complete oxidation of carbon. It occurs in the atmosphere
0.03% and is found in solution in sea-water and rivers. CO2
plays an essential part in metabolism and ecosystem stability -
a waste product of cellular respiration (carbohydrate and fat metabolism)
utilized by plants during photosynthesis. That is, plants absorb
carbon dioxide to obtain the carbon needed to build their tissues
while plants and animals expel the gas as a product of food oxidation.
In its solid form (dry ice) it is used in the treatment of some
skin conditions. It is also used in fire-extinguishers, aerated
water and in the bakery industry where bubbles of carbon dioxide
liberated by yeast (or baking powder) in the dough lightens the
dough rendering it more palatable. (See PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIRATION,
CARBON FIXATION, GLOBAL WARMING, GREENHOUSE EFFECT) (IP)
CARCINOGEN:
Substance that causes or increases the risks of developing cancer.
(See
CANCER)
(DM)
CARDINAL NUMBERS:
Whole numbers such as 1, 2, 3 ... that are used for counting or
for specifying the total number of items. (IP)
CARDINAL VIRTUES:
The traditionally primary virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude
and temperance. (See VIRTUES) (MP)
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE:
(Greek
kardia
'heart'). Any abnormal condition characterized by the
dysfunction of the heart or blood vessels such as arteriosclerosis,
rheumatic heart disease and systemic hypertension. In affluent western
societies such as the USA and Australia, cardiovascular disease
is the leading cause of death. (See STRESS; DISEASES OF ADAPTATION;
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME) (SG2+IP)
CARING:
With the rise of
VIRTUE ETHICS
(q.v.) a caring person is increasingly recognised in ethics as a
particular instance of a good person. Caring is not to be equated
with
BENEFICENCE
(q.v.), having a more relational quality to it.
FEMINISM
(q.v.) has seen caring as a central human virtue yet one that has
traditionally been undervalued both in academic ethics in particular
and in patriarchal societies more widely. It has been strongly argued
that caring is central to such professions as nursing and teaching.
(MR)
CARRIER:
Someone who may transmit a
recessive
genetic condition but who normally does not show any evidence of
the disease (DM). It is possible to distinguish two types of carriers,
sex-linked and autosomal carriers. In the first case, only women
are carriers, and may transmit the disease gene to either sex of
her children, but only boys will be affected in a ratio of 1 in
2 (50% chance). In the second case, if both parents are carriers
of a mutant gene, any child has a chance of 1 in 4 (25%) to suffer
the disease (GK).
CARRIER TESTING:
Used to detect individuals who possess a single copy of a gene which
follows an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance. Such an individual
will not normally develop any disease or disorder but may pass on
the gene to his or her offspring.
CARRYING CAPACITY:
Carrying capacity (represented by the symbol K in ecology) is the
maximum population density able to be sustained by an environment
for a prolonged period of time without causing lasting damage or
degradation. The concept also has applications to human ecology,
for example in international development, food production or ecotourism
management. (See SUSTAINABILITY, LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE) (MP)
CARSON, RACHEL:
(1907-1964). Biologist and writer whose 1962 book
Silent Spring
has widely been hailed as heralding the environmental movement in
the West. Carson initially specialised in English but her ambition
to become a writer was initially overcome by her interest in natural
history. For much of her working life she was genetic biologist
and then editor-in-chief for the US Fish and Wildlife Service. In
Silent Spring
Carson presciently argued that chemical pollution, particularly
through the widespread use of agricultural pesticides, was both
killing wildlife and upsetting the balance of nature.
(MR)
CARTEGENA PROTOCOL OF THE BIODIVERSITY
CONVENTION:
Ratified by fifty countries, this international treaty came into
force on 11 September, 2003. It regulates the inter-country transfer
of LMOs and GMOs. (DM)
CASUISTRY:
A method of ethical analysis that emphasizes practical problem-solving
through examining individual cases that are considered to be representative.
(DM)
CATALYST:
1. A chemical which remains unchanged but acts to initiate or increase
the rate of a chemical or biological reaction. 2. More generally,
a catalyst may be any substance, course of action or idea which
initiates or increases the efficiency of any process of change.
(See ENZYME) (MP)
CATHEKONIC ETHIC:
A philosophical principle that deals with the relationship between
parts and the whole. (JA)
CATHOLIC:
Universal. So, strictly, the Catholic Church is either the whole
body of Christians or the whole Christian Church before it separated
into the Greek (Eastern) and Latin (Western) branches. In practice,
though, the Catholic Church is widely understood as the Roman Catholic
Church, namely that part of the Latin Church which remained under
Roman authority after the Reformation. Roman Catholic theology has
been and remains important in much medical ethics, for example with
regard to the
PRINCIPLE OF DOUBLE EFFECT
(q.v.) and such issues as
ABORTION
(q.v.),
CONTRACEPTION
(q.v.) and
EUTHANASIA
(q.v.), with Roman Catholic teaching being strongly and consistently
against all three. (MR)
CAUCASIAN:
a term once used to describe an appearance including light skin
and straight light to brown hair; that is, generally meaning of
European descent. (See RACE; RACISM) (SG2)
CAUSATION:
An interaction which produces or brings something about, pertaining
to the cause and effect relation. Causes have consequences; affects
have effects; act-contact-impact over time. Causation implies a
pre-impact
necessary connection
and
constant conjunction
. Correlation or logical necessity may not necessarily indicate
causation. Many things have a plurality of causes, the multitude
of which leads to ‘ultimate’ causation and the freedom/determinism
debate. (See CORRELATION, AFFECT, EFFECT, PROOF, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT)
(MP)
CBD: see CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (JA)
CELL:
The smallest component of life. Biological component of tissue -
contains nucleus and cytoplasm (protoplasm). A membrane-bound protoplasmic
body capable of carrying on all essential life processes. A single
cell unit is a complex collection of molecules with many different
activities all integrated to form a functioning, self-assembling,
self-regulating, and self-reproducing biological unit. (DM)
CELL CULTURE:
The propagation of cells removed from multicellular organisms in
a laboratory environment that has strict sterility, temperature,
and nutrient requirements. (DM)
CELL FUSION:
The joining of the membrane of two cells, thus creating a single
hybrid cell that contains nuclear matter from both the parent cells.
(DM)
CELL HYBRIDIZATION:
artificial formation of living cells through hi-tech biotechnological
process of genetic manipulation and recombination technology and
by the fusion of two or more cells by means of techniques that do
not occur naturally. (JA)
CELL SUSPENSION:
Made by cutting bits of tissues when shaken in liquid nutrient medium
forms a single cell or clusters of cell suspension and having similar
property as that of adult plant/animal. (JA)
CELSIUS DEGREE (°C):
(Swedish scientist Anders Celsius, 1701-1744). A unit of temperature
difference equal to one hundredths of the difference between the
temperatures of freezing and boiling water at one atmosphere pressure.
On the Celsius scale water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C. Also
called centigrade. (See FAHRENHEIT, TEMPERATURE) (IP)
CELLULAR AUTOMATA:
Software ‘organisms’ which emictable programs ‘with
a life of their own’ which have biological analogues such as
heredity, fecundity, symbiosis, and the rapid evolution of complexity.
(See GENETIC ALGORITHMS, ARTIFICIAL LIFE, ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS)
(MP)
CELLULAR TRANSPLANTATION:
Experimental transfer of cellular body components Eg. Blood transfusion,
bone marrow /pancreatic islet cells. (JA)
CENSUS:
1. Statistics: a census is a survey which investigates every member
of a statistical population to determine its parameters. 2. Sociology:
a government- sponsored obligatory survey of all individuals in
a country or region. Early censuses (from 1801 in Britain) were
in the form of simple head-counts, but today census forms ask for
a wide range of personal and household information. Privacy and
trust issues make it preferable that the census be anonymous. Census
data may be disaggregated to provide localized political, academic
and market research. Social statistics are an important resource
for investigating trends in social well being, stratification and
sustainability. (MP)
CENTIGRADE:
See CELCIUS DEGREE (°C).
CENTENARIAN:
A person who has reached the age of one hundred years. (See LIFE
EXTENSION) (MP)
CENTIMORGAN:
A unit of measure of genetic recombination frequency. One centimorgan
is equal to a 1 percent chance that a genetic locus will be separated
from a marker due to recombination in a single generation. In human
beings, 1 centimorgan is equivalent, on average, to 1 million base
pairs. The recombination frequencies between two loci on a chromosome
are not the same in both sexes, and may be quite different from
one chromosomal region to the other. Therefore, genetic distances
measured in centimorgans are just an approximate measure of the
physical distance as measured in base pair units. (DM+GK)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS):
The major coordinating components of the nervous system and associated
nerve cords, normally including the cerebral ganglia (brain) and
ventral nerve (spinal cord). (See BRAIN, NEURON, AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM) (MP)
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU):
The central 'brain' of the computer, able to perform logical
and mathematical operations on data and control the execution of
programming instructions. (See COMPUTER, MICROCHIP) (MP)
CENTRAL TENDENCY:
See MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY.
CENTRE FOR ASIAN AND INTERNATIONAL BIOETHICS:
A centre under the Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University
of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel.. The Centre conducts cross-cultural
research into the foundations of ethics in Israeli and other Asian
countries. It conducts a Mother and Child Health Education project,
for Dalit (q.v.) village mothers in India, in cooperation with the
Dalit Liberation Education Trust, and the Delta School of Nursing,
Kadalure, Tamil-Nadu. The project began with the help of Mashav,
the Department of International Cooperation of the Israeli Foreign
Ministry. The Centre is preparing similar projects for other locations
in developing countries. (FL)
CENTRIC:
Adj. Mode of living in line with the centrality given to a concept/person.
See CENTRISM. (JA)
CENTRISM:
A model of concentric importance, giving a centrality of living/placing
an object/person/concept a central guiding force, other life activities
are determined/controlled/regulated in terms of such a centrality
of living. Eg. Theocentrism (God centred), biocentrism (life), ecocentrism
(green technology), Anthropocentrism (human), webcentrism (computer).
(JA)
CENTROMERE:
The small
junction area
between the two arms of a chromosome. (DM+GK)
CERES:
Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies.
CEPH-GENETHON (Centre d"_tude des
polymorphismes humains):
French cell and DNA bank keeping a collection of DNA samples and
immortalized cell lines from 58 Caucasian family donors. The families
representing the panel have large kindred (6 children) and 4 living
grand-parents, accounting for 1.212 meiosis. It has also developed
a high density microsatellite physical map for each human chromosome,
suitable for linkage analyses. (GK)
CEPHALOPODA:
Members of the mollusc class Cephalopoda include the nautilus, cuttlefish,
squid and of course the octopus, generally considered to possess
the greatest intelligence of invertebrate organisms. (See MOLLUSCA)
(MP)
CERVIX:
(Latin
cervix
"neck") that part of the uterus that protrudes into the
cavity of the vagina - also called the "neck of uterus".
Cancer of the cervix is a major cause of death among women. (see
CERVICAL CANCER; CERVICAL MUCUS; OVULATION METHOD OF FAMILY PLANNING)
(IP)
CERVICAL CANCER:
a neoplasm (abnormal development of cells that may be benign or
malignant) of the uterine cervix that can be detected in the early,
curable stage by the Papanicolaou (Pap) smear test. If left untreated
cervical cancer invades the adjacent tissues and organs and eventually
metastasizes through lymphatic dispersal. Carcinoma
in situ
, on the other hand, may be easily treated by excision or cryosurgery.
Factors, which may be associated with the development of cervical
cancer, are coitus at an early age, relations with many sexual partners,
genital herpesvirus infections, multiparty, and poor obstetric and
gynecologic care. (see PAP SMEAR TEST) (IP)
CERVICAL MUCUS:
a secretion of the lining of the upper portion of the cervical canal
of the uterus. The mucus" consistency and appearance changes
throughout the menstrual cycle. Around the time of ovulation, the
volume of mucus increases and becomes thin, clear elastic, and easily
penetrable by sperm; during the infertile periods of the menstrual
cycle the mucus is thick and less penetrable to bacteria and sperm.
The cervical-mucus method of birth-control is based on the detection
of this change in the vaginal mucus in order to avoid intercourse
during the likely fertile period. (IP)
CESAREAN: see
CAESARIAN.
CHAKRABARTY VS DIAMOND CASE:
The famous Diamond V Chakrabarty case in 1980 deals with the patenting
of a genetically modified “ crude oil eating” bacterium.
The Se in nature and has the potential for significant utility value
in environmental protection and cleaning. (JA)
CHAIN REACTION:
A self-sustaining series of reactions, in particular those of nuclear
fission in which the particles released by one nucleus trigger the
fission of at least as many further nuclei. (See CRITICAL MASS,
CHINA SYNDROME, RADIOACTIVITY, NUCLEAR FISSION) (MP)
CHANGE:
See TIME, PROCESSES.
CHAOS THEORY:
The notion in the natural sciences that a very small change in a
system may have massive, unpredictable consequences. Memorably summed
up by the 'Butterfly effect' in which it is possible,
though of course, not certain, that the beating of a butterfly's
wings in one part of the world may lead, a few weeks later, to a
storm thousands of miles away. The indeterminacy of
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
(q.v.) and chaos theory effectively ended belief in a Newtonian,
determinate world-view in which an accurate description of a system
allows its future to be predicted absolutely. Nowadays, for example,
scientists predict that however accurate our measuring instruments
and powerful our computers we will never be able to predict local
weather variations more than a couple of weeks ahead. (MR)
CHARACTER:
One set of symbols such as a letter, number, punctuation mark or
symbol that can be represented in a computer. A character is stored
and manipulated in the computer as a group of bits. (See BYTE) (IP)
CHASTITY BELT:
a lock-and-key device said to be worn by some women in the Middle
Ages to cover their genitals to prevent sexual intercourse during
their husband's absence in battle etc. Similar devices have
been discovered in the Caucasus and among the Cheyenne First Nation
people in America. The use, if indeed they were made use of, of
these devices epitomizes negative societal attitudes towards women
by emphasizing their belonging - property of - another. (IP)
CHEMICAL POLLUTION:
See POLLUTION.
CHEMISTRY:
The study of the states, reactions, and products of elements and
compounds. (RW)
CHEMOSYNTHESIS:
The formation or synthesis of organic nutritive substances in plants
or animals by the use of energy derived from simple chemical reactions.
For example, anaerobic bacteria such as the methanogens which live
within the decaying sediments of bogs and marshes and produce methane
gas. (See ANAEROBE, PHOTOSYNTHESIS) (MP)
CHEMOTAXIS:
the process whereby bacteria that possess flagellae for propulsion
sense a concentration gradient of a chemical substance in the medium
and move either toward or away from it (see TAXIS). (IP)
CHEMOTHERAPY:
the treatment of diseases with chemical agents. The procedure involves
the exploitation of biochemical differences between the disease
process and the host tissue in order to interfere selectively with
the disease process; for example, in selectively destroying cancer
cells. Modern biochemical pharmacology is based on designing specific
inhibitors targeted to discriminate against a metabolic process
that is specific to the pathological condition. (IP)
CHERNOBYL:
A city in the Soviet Republic of Byelorussia and the site of the
world’s most disastrous nuclear accident in April 1986. The
nuclear energy red radiation-related ailments such as endocrine/immune
system problems and birth defects. (See CHINA SYNDROME, NUCLEAR
FISSION, RADIOACTIVITY, THREE MILE ISLAND, BHOPAL) (MP)
CHI-SQUARE TEST:
A measure of how well a theoretical probability distribution fits
a set of data. The test is typically used in analyzing experimental
data with standard normal distributions. (See ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE,
SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTIC) (IP)
CHILD ABUSE:
physical, sexual, or emotional mistreatment of an infant or child
by any adult or adults. Major therapeutic and statutory concerns
are identifying dysfunctional family members, friends or relatives
and the children at risk. A duty of care falls on any individual
who is confronted with children with obvious physical signs (the
"battered-child syndrome") such as burns, welts, bruises,
frequent physical mishaps/fractures, suspected sexual molestation,
or signs of emotional distress and overall failure to thrive. Characteristically,
abuse may be seen as the final behavioral consequence of multiple
factors compounded by a variety of stressful circumstances; such
as drug abuse, lack of emotional support within the family unit
or lack of nurturing experience, possibly by victims of child abuse
themselves. Child Sexual Abuse is the involvement of dependent,
developmentally immature children and adolescents in sexual activities
to which they are unable to give informed consent, and which violate
the social taboos of family responsibilities. Despite recent insights,
there still remain a large number of uncertainties and confusions
surrounding child abuse. To some degree, this may be due to the
particular protection society affords to "family business"
and problems adults have in dealing with sexuality in themselves
and in children. Additionally the area of child abuse is difficult
to research objectively because it raises issues about power, secrecy,
shame and guilt. (See ABUSE;
elder abuse
; DRUG ABUSE) (IP)
CHILD NEGLECT:
See CHILD ABUSE.
CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE:
See CHILD ABUSE.
CHILDREN:
In the US it is the age designation for humans 2-12 years old.
(DM)
CHILDREN WARRIORS:
See CHILD ABUSE, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY.
CHIMERA:
An organism formed by the aggregation of cells taken from different
genotypes. Chimeric embryos may occur naturally or artificially.
An inter-species chimera is when the cells are from different species.
Combination of unrelated species, ancient mythical gods with human-lion,
human horse, human monkey, human-elephant head combinations in Hindu
and Greek mythology. Insertion of foreign animal genes in plant/human
in a particular species. Cell fusion of two species, Sheep-goat
resulting in a Geep. See GEEP. Ethical
questions include - is it a sheep with pig genes, or is it a sheep
or a pig? What percentage determines a species in transgenic? Is
a human body with a pig head human or a pig? It dilutes the concept
of speciation. (DM, JA)
CHINA SYNDROME:
A term used to describe a catastrophic nuclear energy reactor core
meltdown, in which the radioactive fuel would melt unstoppably into
the earth, colloquially “all the way to China”. Chernobyl
was a ho (See CHERNOBYL, THREE MILE ISLAND, NUCLEAR FISSION, CHAIN
REACTION) (MP)
CHINDOGU:
A Japanese word for those practically useless consumer goods which
are nevertheless commonly produced and purchased by the wealthy
as a result of the temptations of glossy advertising. Chindogu may
include novelty items, unwanted gifts, technological gizmos and
other wasted resources. (See CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION) (MP)
CHLORDANE:
Chlordane, also known as Octachlor, is a dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticide, one of the 'dirty dozen' persistent organic
pollutants. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS:
Persistent organic pollutants including DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin, Endrin
and Chlordane used as pesticides but today maligned and phased out
across much of the world because of their medical/ecological impacts
such as toxicity and bioaccumulation. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS)
(MP)
CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS OR CFCs:
Volatile compounds commonly known as "Freons". The chemicals
have been used in association with refrigerant fluids, solvents,
aerosol propellants and blowing agents in the fabrication of foam
plastics. Their extraordinarily high stability enables them to persist
in the atmosphere and to enter the stratosphere where they are the
major culprit in ozone layer depletion (see OZONE HOLE). Lag times
before the effects of human-driven change emerge can often be long;
for example, CFCs released into the atmosphere now will damage the
ozone layer in thirty to eighty years time, risking a false sense
of safety. (IP)
CHLOROPLAST:
Those structures within plant cells where photosynthesis occurs.
They contain small
circular
DNA molecules that replicate independently of the nucleus.
(DM)
CHOICE:
See SCIENCE OF CHOICE.
CHORDATA:
The bilaterally symmetrical animal phylum characterized by the presence
of a flexible, rod-like notochord during at least some stage of
development. The notochord serves as the main internal structural
element in primitive chordates, but develops into a true backbone
in others, such as the Vertebrata. (RW)
CHORIONIC VILLI:
Finger-like projections growing from the external surface of the
chorion that contribute to the formation of the placenta. (DM)
CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING (CVS):
The procedure used in prenatal diagnosis to take a small sample
of the chorionic villi for testing, such as genetic screening. (DM)
CHRIST, JESUS:
Central figure of the Christian faith, understood in a unique way
as God's Son and, along with God the Father and the Holy Spirit,
as one of the Trinity. Seen by some other faiths as a great prophet.
(MR)
CHRISTIAN ETHICS:
System of belief about right and wrong actions and attitudes derived
from, or at least strongly influenced by, Christianity (faith in
Jesus, the Christ as the one son of God). Much Christian ethics
derives from scripture, so discussions / disagreements among Christians
about such matters as divorce often cite particular verses in the
bible that deal with the issue. Many of today’s ethical issues,
of course, lack much or any specific scriptural reference –
e.g. genetic engineering, euthanasia, cloning, and the conservation
of endangered species. Christian ethicists typically still draw
on more general scriptural principles – e.g. about the place
of God in creation, and stewardship – as well as reason and
tradition when debating such issues. (MR)
CHRISTIANS:
The disciples of the Lord Jesus Christ were called Christians in
the city of Antioch (Bible. Acts. 11:26). Their life style was so
unique that King Agrippa replied St Paul " Do you think that
in such a short time you can persuade me to be a Christian"
(Acts. 21:28). Till about 300 AD, Christians were persecuted (1
Peter 4:16) like the people living in Cappadocia (now in Turkey).
Although there are two major divisions, namely Protestants and Roman
Catholics, these groups are not found in the Bible, there are now
many sects among Christians, which are based on minor doctrinal
differences. (JA)
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES:
Congential disorders or genetic mutations involving changes in the
number and structure of chromosomes. (see DOWN'S SYNDROME,
XYY KARYOTYPE) (DM)
CHROMOSOMAL DISORDERS:
See CHROMOSOME ABNORMALITIES.
CHROMOSOME:
chromo (clor) soma (body), stains with basic dyes. Specific to each
species. A structure that lies inside a cell's nucleus. A chromosome
is composed mainly of DNA. Each normal cell of the human body has
23 pairs of chromosomes.
The organelle found in which they are found is the nucleus, containing
DNA 23 pairs in human being. (See KARYOTYPE, AUTOSOME) (JA)
CHRONICALLY ILL:
See CHRONIC DISEASE, CRITICALLY ILL, DISABLED, REHABILITATION, TERMINALLY
ILL.
CHRONOCENTRISM:
(From the Greek "chrono-"= time + center+ ism)
A belief or viewpoint which holds that a particular time period
is better than others, and that the society which lives in that
time period is superior to societies which live/d in other time
periods. During the 20th century, many new terms were coined to
acknowledge the growing awareness that being self-focused (either
as an individual or as a group) has negative aspects, and that there
are multiple viewpoints and perspectives that need to be recognised.
The terms "racism", "sexism", "antisemitism",
and "ageism" demonstrate examples of discrimination applied
to certain groups of people, based upon the conditions of their
birth, whether gender, ethnicity, race or religion are a factor.
The coining of "ageism" also shows awareness of a person's
age and how that affects the way that person is viewed in society.
There is also recognition of the problem of discrimination of people
with disabilities of various sorts. However, there is another subtle
form of self-centered thinking, which has not been acknowledged
with a special term, and this is why the term "chronocentrism"
is being offered.
It is difficult to claim that chronocentrism
is a form of discrimination in the usual sense of the word. The
reason is that generally chronocentrism is applied towards people
who are not currently alive. Chronocentrism is not quite the same
as discrimination against people who were born earlier, and thus
lived their formative years in a different societal and technological
setting. It is also not quite the same as discrimination applied
towards a traditional society that is considered "backward".
In both cases, the discrimination is applied to people, and the
negative attitude towards those people's ideas is given as
the reason for the discrimination. However, in the case of chronocentrism,
the negative attitude is applied to a society, rather than towards
a particular person. That society is held to be "inferior"
to one's own. In some ways, this parallels negative attitudes
towards foreign societies that are contemporary with one's
own. However, in the case of chronocentrism, the negative attitude
is applied even towards one's own society of a different time
period. While this does not have a direct affect on a particular
human being, it can have affect on a large number of people, because
chronocentrism is directed at the values and lifestyle of society.
Derivative forms include "chronocentric" for an adjectival
form, "chronocentrist"- "one who practices chronocentrism".
(AG)
CHU HSI:
(pinyin spelling Zhu Xi) (1130-1200) Confucian scholar and philosopher.
His most influential work included commentary of the classical Confucian
texts. Zhu Xi's interpretations became the official interpretation
of Confucian texts, and so, his commentaries exerted considerable
influence on Chinese thought for centuries. (AG)
CHUANG TZU:
Chinese philosopher (c.369-286 BCE). The work which bears his name,
the Chuang Tzu, is one of the key philosophical texts of Taoism
along with the Tao Te Ching. (See TAOISM, TAO TE CHING, LAO TSE)
(MP)
CIA:
Central Intelligence Agency (U.S.).
CIESIN:
Center for International Earth Science Information Network (US).
CIGUATERA:
food item that is not toxic in itself becomes toxic due to contamination
- bacterial/toxic diatoms/heavy metals. (JA)
CILIA:
Short hair-like structures on a cell or microorganism, the movement
of which aids mobility of the cell and transfer of materials across
its surface. (See FLAGELLA) (MP)
CIRCUMCISION, MALE:
Practiced for religious reasons by Jews and Muslims, and for medical
reasons to a large extent in the United States and Canada. Reviews
conducted by committees of the Canadian Pediatric Society and the
American Medical Association acknowledged some benefits of the operation
for reducing sexually transmitted disease, penile cancer and neonatal
urinary tract infections. But they also noted dangers of surgical
error and complications. Both the benefits and the risks are statistically
small, and they are close to equal. So both committees recommended
against routine medical neonatal circumcision. Their reports were
published, however, before more recent research suggesting that
circumcision may protect against AIDS because receptors for the
HIV virus are located on the inner side of the foreskin and at the
point where the foreskin is attached to the penis.
There is a debate in Jewish tradition between
those who believe, with Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Saadia Gaon, that
circumcision improves the baby by removing an unnecessary piece
of skin, and those who believe, with Maimonides (q.v.) that nature
never does anything unnecessarily, and that whatever nature does
routinely (as opposed to mutations) is for the good of health. Maimonides
believed that the foreskin performs a perfectly healthy function,
contributing to pleasure and erectile Function, and that Jews are
commanded to remove it in order to reduce sexual pleasure to no
more than is needed to perform the Biblical commandment to be fruitful
and multiply. There are religious Jewish movements today, associated
with Reform Judaism, who want to do away with infant circumcision.
(FL)
CIRCUMCISION, FEMALE:
See FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE:
Common-sense notion of indirect information that suggests the most
likely explanation for some event. For example, if a gun shot is
heard from a room with only one entrance/exit and I then walk out
and others then find a dead woman in the room, there is circumstantial
evidence that I killed her. Of course, it could be that she killed
herself, that I shot her but she was already dead, etc. (MR)
CITES:
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.
CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE:
An individual or community action which, although is in violation
of the law, acts as an expression of personal or ideological values
and a democratic plea for legal change. Examples include ‘Reclaim
the Streets’ for pedestrians and the ‘Mardi Grass’ for
advocates of pot decriminalization. (See CRITICAL MASS, RECLAIM
THE STREETS, MARDI GRASS, ACTIVISM, NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION) (MP)
CJD:
see CREUZFELDT-JABOB DISEASE.
CLAIRVOYANCE:
(French: "clear-seeing") The clairvoyant is a person who
claims, without apparent sensory means, awareness of events occurring
at a distance or the ability to foretell future events. (See EXTRA-SENSORY
PERCEPTION, TELEPATHY, PRECOGNITION) (MP)
CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS:
A popular term emphasizing the role of inter-civilizational differences
as one of the causes of wars, cold war and international tension,
for example contrasts between the dominant religious/political/ideological
systems of the Sinic, Islamic and Western civilizations. Popularized
by Samuel Huntington's 1997 book of the same name, the clash
of civilizations hypothesis experienced a revival after the 2001
terrorist attacks upon America. Although a useful basis for peace
research and the search for common philosophical ground, care should
be taken not to promote the concept of a divided world. Such generalizations
should not ignore the positive international effects of multiculturalism,
trade, travel and human diversity, nor the fact that civilizational
differences are often merely used as an excuse to justify war -
the true underlying reasons for war usually more directly involve
power, territory, resources and/or economics. (See CIVILIZATION,
WESTERN CIVILIZATION) (MP)
CLASS:
(Latin:
classis
"rank") 1. Sociology: A division or classification of
people by economic, cultural or social ranking, or containing members
sharing common attributes. Social rank, economic stratum and cultural
caste may be useful classifications for understanding socioeconomic
systems, but should be broken down to bring people together rather
than emphasizing difference and encouraging prejudice. (See CASTE
SYSTEM) 2. Biology: The taxonomic classification of organisms below
the phylum, and containing one or more orders. For example Class
Reptilia, or Class Mammalia which includes humans. (MP)
CLASSICAL MECHANICS:
A system of mechanics that is based on Newton's laws of motion;
that is, the laws of bodies acted on by forces. Einstein's
theory of relativity and Planck's quantum theory are not taken
into account. Classical mechanics is essentially experimental and
its laws are based in intuitive deduction. (See NEWTON, SIR ISAAC,
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION, QUANTUM THEORY, RELATIVITY THEORY)
(IP)
CLAUSEWITZ, CARL VON:
Prussian-born military officer and strategist Carl von Clausewitz
(1780-1831) was the author of
On War,
considered one of the definitive collections of insights on the
subject. Although his work has negligible emphasis on morality or
war ethics, its contributions to the theory and nature of war include
valuable insights. Clausewitz argues that politics is the source
and objective of war, which is mere "continuation of policy
by other means". (See INSTITUTION OF WAR) (MP)
CLEAN PRODUCTION:
A worldwide movement towards greener production practices, 'cleaner
production' (or 'clean production', emphasizing the
shift towards zero impacts) includes efforts towards the minimization
of resource use, ecological disruption, social impacts, industrial
emissions and wasteful products or processes. (MP)
CLEAVAGE:
The stage of cell division that takes place immediately after fertilization
and that lasts until the cells begin to segregate and differentiate
and to develop into a blastocyst. (IP)
CLIA 88:
Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendment of 1988 by the FDA, prescribing
federal regulations in genetic testing.
CLIMATE:
Conditions of temperature, rainfall, humidity, etc. in a region.
Of little ethical concern until in recent years when it has been
realised that climate can be affected by human actions, as, for
example, in GLOBAL WARMING (q.v.).
(MR)
CLIMATE CHANGE:
See GREENHOUSE EFFECT, GLOBAL WARMING.
CLINICAL ETHICS:
The identification, analysis, and resolution of moral problems that
arise in the care of individual patients. (DM)
CLINICAL ETHICS COMMITTEES:
Institutional committees established to protect the welfare of patients.
(See ETHICS COMMITTEES) (DM)
CLINICAL TRIALS:
A general term for attempts to make testing of new drugs as scientific
as possible. Clinical trials are the central method for applying
the ideal of "Evidence Based Medicine", i.e. allowing
into the physician's pharmacopoeia and clinical repertoire
only those drugs and techniques which have been scientifically proved
to be safe and effective. This is still far from reality, however,
as it is generally understood that the majority of treatments in
use today are still based upon the collective experience of the
profession, and not on scientific evidence. Also, controlled clinical
trials of surgical techniques lag far behind those of drugs.
After a new drug is studied in vitro and
with animal subjects (a bioethical issue in itself) controlled clinical
trials are performed on human subjects, ideally with the free informed
consent of the patient, although this is problematic in pediatric,
psychiatric and geriatric medicine. Trials are "controlled"
in that the test group may be compared with a group which receives
no treatment, or with a group receiving an existing treatment, or
with a group receiving a placebo. The most recent version of the
Helsinki Declaration (q.v.) however, recommends using an existing
treatment for comparison rather than a placebo. The bioethical reason
is that patients may find that their only hope for cure is to enter
a trial and take a risk of getting the placebo rather than the real
treatment. This would be a form of coercion. Trials are also supposed
to be "double blind" in the sense that both the physician
and the patient are not supposed to know who is getting the treatment
and who is getting the placebo.
Clinical trials are usually sponsored by
the corporation which has invested in developing the drug, and which
hopes to eventually make a profit. This can lead to many bioethical
problems. For example, there is little uniformity among contracts
between drug companies and physician-researchers, but some have
clauses forbidding the physician to divulge to a third party or
to publish information learned during the conduct of the trial,
unless the drug company gives permission. A physician, whose first
loyalty must be to one's patients, and to patients in general,
has a bioethical dilemma when one has concluded that the drug is
detrimental to the patients, but the drug company is slow about
giving permission to publish this information. By the time the drug
company gets around to giving permission, some patients can be hurt.
Physicians who have seen their loyalty to their patients, and their
academic freedom to publish data which can prevent future harm to
patients, as more important than their contract with the drug company,
have not always been supported by their hospitals and universities.
(FL)
CLINICAL TRIALS, INFORMED CONSENT IN PEDIATRIC,
PSYCHIATRIC AND GERIATRIC:
The requirement for freely-given informed consent becomes problematic
when the patient is incapable of clearly understanding and freely
assenting, or when the patient's competence is on the borderline.
Such cases may be more the rule than the exceptions in hospitals,
where even the most sane, intelligent and well-informed patients
may be in pain, in fear and under great emotional pressure. These
problems are amplified when the patient is a baby, or mentally ill
or a geriatric patient in or close to dementia, or when the patient
is in coma. In order to allow research to proceed, the concept of
a "proxy" or "surrogate" was devised. A parent
of a baby, for example, or a family member of an adult incompetent
patient, is allowed to give the "free informed consent"
thereby preserving the ideology of "autonomy". But this
is a legal and bioethical fiction.
When the treatment under trial is indicated
for the clear medical benefit of the patient, then there is room
for proxy assent. Obviously a parent can impose treatment (an unpleasant
vaccine injection, for example) when it is clearly for a baby's
good. But more attention must be paid to formulating ethics of interventional
trials on healthy babies, or on other patients who are incapable
of giving free informed consent by themselves. (FL)
CLONE:
A collection of cells or organisms that are genetically identical.
An identical genetic copy of an organism - animal/plant/ human being.
(DM, JA)
CLONING:
The process of asexually producing a group of cells (clones), all
genetically identical to the original ancestor. In recombinant DNA
manipulation procedures to produce multiple copies of a single gene
or segment of DNA. The production of a cell or an organism from
a somatic cell of an organism with the same nuclear genomic (genetic)
characters - without fertilization. (See STEM CELLS) (DM, JA)
CLOSED LOOP RECYCLING:
See DEEP DESIGN VALUE SYSTEM.
CLOSED QUESTIONS:
Questions which have a restricted range of answers. In research
such as social surveys this may facilitate statistical analysis.
Closed questions only requiring short answers include ‘Who?’,
‘When?’ and ‘Where?’, and are not as effective in
encouraging the shy communicator to speak at social occasions. (See
OPEN QUESTIONS) (MP)
CNIDARIA:
The phylum of exclusively aquatic, invertebrate animals characterized
by radial symmetry, a sac-like internal cavity and nematocysts stinging
cells. There are four major groups of cnidarians: The Anthozoa include
the corals, sea pens, and anemones. The Hydrozoa include many medusae,
the hydroids, and siphonophores. The Scyphozoa are the true jellyfish.
The Cubozoa are the box jellies. (RW)
CNS:
See CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT:
See INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT.
COBE:
Cosmic Background Explorer satellite, launched on 18 Nov. 1989 to
map radio-wave data and investigate the nature and origin of the
early universe. (See SATELLITE, BIG BANG, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION)
(MP)
COCA:
A species of South American shrub
Erythroxylum coca
, native to Bolivia and Peru containing a natural source of cocaine.
Traditionally, the leaves are dried and chewed or prepared in coca
tea for their mild stimulant effect. (See COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE)
(IP)
COCAINE:
See COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE.
COCAINE BABIES:
the birth of a growth retarded infant with birth defects caused
by exposure to cocaine prior to conception or during pregnancy.
Direct causes may be poor sperm or egg quality of a male or female
cocaine user, and/or drug-effects
in utero
adversely affecting the developing embryo and fetus. Contributing
causes may be poor nutritional habits and abuse of additional substances
such as alcohol and tobacco. (see COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE; CRACK;
ADDICTION) (IP)
COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE:
a crystalline alkaloid derived from coca leaves but can also be
manufactured synthetically. Traditionally used as a local anesthetic
cocaine, when taken internally, is highly toxic with serious psychotropic
effects. It is one of the most powerful dopamine-enhancing drugs
and achieves its effect at the nerve synapse by blocking the neuron’s
recycling system for dopamine; thus dramatically increasing the
amount of dopamine messenger available to stimulate neurotransmission.
Throf excitability characterized by euphoria, optimism, increased
energy and decreased need for sleep. The euphoric effect lasts about
30 minuttement, restlessness, incoherent speech, fever, hypertension,
and cardiac arrhythmias which can lead to convulsions, respiratory
arrest and ssion so frequently abuse it (see CRACK; COCA; COCAINE
BABIES; ADDICTION). (IP)
CODE:
A set of principles. (see GENETIC CODE)
CODE OF HAMMURABI:
(actually should be Hammurapi, based on Ugaritic texts) Major lawcode
of ancient Mesopotamia. This lawcode is named for Hammurapi, the
king 6th king of the first dynasty of Babylon (1792-50 bce). On
the stele of Hammurapi, the king is protrayed as receiving the lawcode
from Shamash, the sun god. The laws in the code demonstrate three
levels in society: the awilum (free man), the mushkenum (the dependant,
of somewhat lower status than the awilum), and the wardum (slave).
Each is judged according to his social class, and greater damages
are awarded to an awilum who was injured than a mushkenum or wardum
who was injured. The principle of "an eye for an eye"
is applied to the extreme in this lawcode. Many of the cases in
the code of Hammurapi are dealt with in the Torah as well, and so,
this lawcode has become a popular source of comparison between Babylonian
law and Jewish law. The text of the code is written in the Babylonian
dialect of the Akkadian language. (AG)
CODES OF CONDUCT:
See ENVIRONMENTAL CODE OF CONDUCT.
CODES OF ETHICS:
Systems of principles or rules of ethical professional conduct,
usually established by professional societies. An ethical code governs
, for instance, the use of a technology or the Patient -Doctor relationship.
Ethical considerations form a guideline evoking acceptable behavior
based on moral values and practical experiences. It serves as a
regulatory principle e.g. marketing and labeling of GM food, confidentiality
in the treatment of people living with HIV and AIDS. (DM,
JA).
CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION (CAC):
The joint FAO-WHO Intergovernmental body that makes legally binding
standards for international regulation of food quality, safety and
trade.
(DM)
CODOMINANT:
1.
From the phenotypic point of view, status of the alleles of an autosomal
gene, where both contribute to the phenotype due to that particular
gene in a heterozygote. 2. From the molecular point of view, differences
in the two copies of a specific gene in a heterozygous person, that
can be visualized by molecular methods (i.e., two sizes of a STR
or a VNTR, or presence/absence of a restriction site from a RFLP
marker). (GK)
CODON:
A sequence of three DNA base pairs which codes for an amino acid.
Consist of three nucleotides, a three lettered code word (e.g. UUU
for phenylalanine/AAA= lysine) for each of 20 amino acids. (DM,
JA)
COEFFICIENT VARIATION:
It is the measure of how much bigger is the standard deviation when
compared with the mean. (JA)
COELENTERATES:
Coelenterata is previous taxonomical terminology for the phylum
Cnidaria. The coelenterates (cnidarians) include corals, hydrozoans
and jellyfish. (See CNIDARIA) (MP)
COERCION:
An action taken to force another to adopt a behaviour. Issues include
force feeding, and mandatory programs as compared to voluntary programs.
(DM)
COGNISANCE:
(Latin:
cognitio
'apprehend')
1. knowledge, awareness, perception, bioethics self-awareness 2.
to investigate for the purpose of knowing, to understand, learn
knowledge, recognition by observation or information 3. consciousness,
state of awareness. (IP)
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY:
was conceived and developed by Aaron Beck, a professor of psychiatry
at the University of Pennsylvania, and emphasizes the power of positive
thinking. Basically the therapy assumes that, given accurate information,
the brain can "think" its way back to health; that is,
by harnessing its powerful intelligence, the brain can learn to
be objective about itself and replace old destructive thinking patterns
with new, constructive adaptive ones. Cognitive-behavioral therapists
believe that conscious thought, rather than unconscious motivation,
determines social behavior; therefore, with professional guidance,
individuals can learn to change their maladaptive attitudes toward
other people. This form of therapy differs from the older psychodynamic
therapies by placing greater emphasis upon the active participation
of the patient, with the ultimate goal being the regaining of personal
control of the social environment through self-education and learned
optimism. These therapies have been compared, head-to-head, with
antidepressant drugs in the treatment of acute episodes of depression,
and found to be effective, especially in milder illness. It seems,
therefore, that thinking about how one thinks is an essential tool
because it provides a sense of personal control and complements
the wise use of medication. (see ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY) (IP)
COGNITIVE LIMITS:
See IMPOSSIBILITY, UNKNOWABLE.
COHERENCE:
A set of beliefs or theories are in coherence when they are mutually
supportive and none are inconsistent with any other. (See CONSILIENCE,
CORRELATION) (MP)
COHORT:
A group of individuals of the same age/generation within a population.
It is often useful in ecological management and marine conservation
to track cohorts through their life cycle within the general population.
(See AGE DISTRIBUTION) (MP)
COITUS:
(Latin
coire
‘to go together’). An act of intercourse that usually, but
not always, involves penetration of the penis into the vagina and
results in sexual excitation and, as a rule, orgasm. (See COITUS
INTERRUPTUS) (IP)
COITUS INTERRUPTUS:
Withdrawal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation.
It is thought to be the oldest method of contraception and is mentioned
in the Book of Genesis. The method is not reliable (failure rate
is above 15%) because small amounts of sperm containing seminal
fluid may be emitted before full sensation leading to ejaculation
is felt. Unwanted conceptions may carry the risk of conflict, resentment
and prenatal/postnatal neglect.
(See NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS, CONTRACEPTIVES, CONDOM) (IP)
COLEOPTERA:
The insect order containing the beetles, Coleoptera is such a diverse
and widespread order that beetles comprise over a quarter of all
species found on Earth today. (MP)
COLLATERAL DAMAGE:
(Collateral: "situated beside" + Damage: "injury
or loss") A military term referring to civilian victims and
casualties of military operations, including non-combatant deaths
or injuries and damages to civil property. The 1949 Geneva Convention
and 1977 Geneva Protocol outline internationally recognized protections
for innocent civilians. Scrutinized strategic targeting with modern
precision weapons has changed the nature of war in comparison to
the deliberate targeting of civilian populations in World War II.
Collateral damages are today generally unintentional, and can be
used for propaganda purposes and war crimes allegations. The term
collateral damage is a good example of the use of euphemism to render
distasteful concepts obscure to the layperson. (See GENEVA CONVENTIONS,
JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, EUPHEMISM, REFUGEES, CASUALTIES, POST TRAUMATIC
STRESS DISORDER) (MP)
COLLECTIVE:
A group of people who have assembled together due to similar value
systems and a common cause; for example a collective farm or kibbutz.
(See UNITED) (MP)
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING:
The practice of reaching work and pay agreements directly through
representatives of employers and employees, often bypassing workers
rights protection afforded by industrial dispute institutions such
as trade unions. (See INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS, INDUSTRIAL ACTION) (MP)
COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS:
A hypothetical spiritual communion of all thoughts, emotions, memes
and memories into a collective or super-consciousness, perhaps with
emergent properties. (See COLLECTIVE MEMORY, COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS,
INFOSPHERE, MORPHIC RESONANCE) (MP)
COLLECTIVE MEMORY:
The "meme pool", or shared and combined experiences and
memories of the sentient animals on Earth. Although each of us has
a unique set of memories, we also have shared memories of our historical
record and our collective achievements and mistakes. The expansion
of this shared consciousness through the promotion of learning can
help to guide us towards a more ethical future in which previous
human and environmental tragedies are not perpetuated. (See MEME,
CULTURE, DREAMTIME) (MP)
COLLECTIVE SECURITY:
This concept grew out of the Geneva conferences on disarmament after
the First World War. Literally the term meant that under the covenant
of the League of Nations, the member states of the League should
together guarantee the security of each individual member. (See
INSTITUTION OF WAR) (IP)
COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS:
A Jungian psychological theory in which some collective aspects
of consciousness such as community history may be imprinted in the
individual unconscious mind. (See COLLECTIVE MEMORY, COLLECTIVE
CONSCIOUSNESS) (MP)
COLLECTIVISM:
A socio-political ideology in which means of production and control
are placed with the people collectively, usually represented by
the state. The emphasis is on responsibilities rather than rights,
and the collective is more important than personal individuality.
Collectivism may incorporate aspects of family, democracy, socialism
and/or Confucianism. (See INDIVIDUALISM) (MP)
COLONIALISM:
The domination of a country by the imposition of economic, religious,
cultural and language practices of the colonial power upon local
populations. Examples include the colonization of the African, Asian,
Australian and American continents by the English, French, Dutch,
Spanish and Portuguese during the 15th to 18th centuries. Most of
these colonies have now been granted political autonomy, although
usually with the maintenance of cultural and economic ties. Any
Western expansionist policies left over from the Ages of Discovery
and Imperialism have today been replaced by economic ones. (MP)
COMA:
Unconscious state, which may occur after a traumatic accident or
stroke. Usually afer two weeks a person is either dead, or enters
persistent vegetative state. (See BRAIN DEATH, PVS). (DM)
COMMENSALISM:
A symbiotic relationship in which one species gains some benefit
from an association with another species, but in which the second
partner has neither benefit nor detriment. An example of a commensal
organism is the rainforest epiphyte, which grows on the trunk of
a host tree and gains the advantage of support, shelter, access
to leaf litter, water flow and sunlight. (See SYMBIOSIS, PARASITE)
(MP)
COMMON GOOD:
The good of every body. (See JUSTICE) (DM)
COMMON LAW:
1. the part of a system of laws of any state or nation that is of
a general and universal application 2. the system of laws originated
and developed in England, based on court decisions, on the doctrines
implicit in those decisions, and on customs and usages, rather than
on codified written laws (see STATUTE LAW) (IP)
COMMON SENSE:
The basic level of practical knowledge and judgment that we all
need to help us live in a reasonable and safe way. Common sense
varies between people and culture, though it is still called "common".
(DM)
COMMONS:
Land not owned privately but in public ownership. (See TRAGEDY
OF THE COMMONS)
(MR)
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES:
Diseases that can be transferred between individuals, infectious
diseases. (DM)
COMMUNICATION:
The sending and reception of useful information between two or more
parties. (See DISCOURSE)
(MR)
COMMUNISM:
The belief in a society without different classes in which the methods
of production are owned and controlled by all its members and everyone
works as much as they can and receives what they need. It is a system
of political and economic organization in which property is owned
by the state or community and all citizens share in the common wealth,
more or less according to their need. Many small communist
communities have existed at one time or another, most of them on
a religious basis, generally under the inspiration of a literal
interpretation of Scripture. In 1848 the word communism acquired
a new meaning when it was used as identical with socialism by Karl
MARX and Friederich ENGELS in their famous
Communist Manifesto
. They and their followers used the term to mean a late stage of
socialism in which goods would become so abundant that they would
be distributed on the basis of need rather than of endeavour. The
Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party,
which took power in Russia in 1917, changed its name to the All-Russian
Communist Party in 1918. Thus the Soviet Union and other states
that were governed by Soviet-type parties were referred to as “Communist”
and their official doctrines were called “Communism,”
although in none of these countries had a communist society in its
original meaning been fully established. (DM)
COMMUNITARIANISM:
An ethical and political philosophy which combines meritism in the
allocation of rights with collectivism in regard to freedom. Central
to the communitarian idea of democracy is that citizens' true
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