UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "D"s

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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DALIT: The lowest class in the Hindu social structure. The Dalit are also called the "untouchables" and are considered to be beneath all of the castes. It is not clear that caste is an originally Hindu idea. It may have been imposed quite late in history. The Dalit liberation movement, founded by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, has been working for the rights of the Dalit since the time of British rule. The Dalit Liberation Education trust, Chennai, has established various educational institutions, including a computer school, a catering school, and the Delta School of Nursing, to help advance the Dalit people. (FL)

DANGEROUSNESS: In law, the state of being likely to cause harm to oneself or to others. (DM)

DAO DEJING: See TAO TE CHING.

DARWIN, CHARLES (JA)

DATA: (Latin: datum "giving") Data (singular datum) are raw facts (usually numerical but also may be names etc.) which by themselves have no meaning until they are organized into a pattern or logical collection. At this point the data becomes information, which can then be used to describe an object, idea, condition or situation in the analysis of a problem. In computing, data are the facts upon which operations are performed, as opposed to the instructions in the program. (See STATISTIC, DATA BANKS, DATABASE, DATA PROCESSING) (MP & IP)

DATA BANKS: Collections of medical, genetic, or other records. (See DATABASE) (DM)

DATABASE: A large collection of organized data or information typically suitable for the processing by computer. Examples of databases are the gene sequences held in Genbank, or the database maintained by the National Center for Biological Information which stores all determined protein structures as three-dimensional coordinates of the constituent atoms. (See STATISTIC, DATA, DATA BANKS, DATA PROCESSING) (IP)

DATA MINING: The process of knowledge discovery or retrieval of hidden information from data banks and collections of databases. Initial steps involve selection and pre-processing by an expert in the appropriate knowledge domain. Then patterns are identified using tools and techniques such as filtering, transformation, induction, cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, fuzzy logic, computer algorithms, case-based reasoning, intelligent agents and artificial neural networks. Information gleaned from data mining may then be interpreted, evaluated, incorporated into the existing knowledge base and modeled. (See DATABASE, KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION) (MP)

DATA PROCESSING: The sequence of operations involved in the manipulation of information by a computer, or other manual manipulation, in order to extract information and to achieve some form of order. (See STATISTIC, DATA, DATA BANKS, DATABASE) (IP)

DDT: abbreviation for the polychlorinated biphenyl pesticide dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane. Owing to their estrogenic potency and biological stability, DDT and its major metabolite DDE (dichlorophenyl-dichloroethane) are implicated in many reproductive dysfunctions, best publicized being faulty calcium mobilization in egg shell production resulting in extinction or endangerment of birds of prey; such the bald eagle and the osprey. It is also believed by some scientists that the PCBs, such as DDT and DDE, may be implicated in falling sperm counts, increasing testicular cancer, hypospadias (abnormal penile development) and cryptorchidism (mal-descent of the testes) in humans over the last 50 years. (see ENDOCRINE DISRUPTERS, POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS & BIOMAGNIFICATION) (IP)

DEA: Drug Enforcement Agency (US).

DEAD FETUS: An expelled or delivered fetus which exhibits no heart beat or spontaneous breathing. A few organs/tissue/cells may show activity indicating that the individual part is alive for a period of time after the moment of death of the fetus. (see LIVE ABORTED FETUS) (JA)

DEAD SEA SCROLLS: A collection of ancient scrolls found in 11 caves in Qumran, near the Dead Sea. These scrolls were discovered over 50 years ago by a Bedouin who was herding his goats. The find was a very rare one because these scrolls were written 2000 years ago, and parchment is a perishable material that generally does not survive many centuries. The climate of the Judean desert helped to preserve these scrolls over the many centuries. The language of the scrolls is generally Hebrew, although some scrolls were found to be written in Aramaic or Greek. The script is a variant of the one currently used to write Hebrew, although in a few texts an older script is also found. These scrolls were written between 100 b.c.e. and 100 c.e. by a group which lived in Qumran. Their lifestyle bears some similarity to a sect known as the Essenes in the writings of the historian Josephus Flavius, and so, the scrolls are often identified as Essene. The content of the scrolls is varied. Included are Biblical texts (Old Testament and Apocrypha), some of the commentaries of the Qumran sect on Biblical books, the rules and regulations of the Qumran sect, and correspondence. These texts are very important for comparison of Biblical manuscripts, knowledge of Hebrew of the 2nd Temple period, knowledge of 2nd Temple period Judaism, and knowledge of early Christianity and its early development. (AG)

DEADLY SINS: See SEVEN DEADLY SINS.

DEAFNESS: See HEARING.

DEATH: See BRAIN DEATH.

DEATH PENALTY: See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.

DEBUG: To detect, locate and correct errors (bugs) that occur in computer programs. Bugs are minimized by parsimonious programming, and can be fixed by consumers downloading software patches and upgrades. More advanced antivirus software may be required in the case of infection by a computer virus or worm. (See BUG, COMPUTER VIRUS) (IP & MP)

DECADENCE: (Medieval Latin: decadentia "a falling away") Self-indulgent behavior usually characterized by wastefulness, moral corruption and cultural deterioration. The materialism, self-absorption and decline of religious values characterized by the West has inspired the term "Western decadence". To bridge this cultural divide, affluent countries can no longer remain apathetic to the needs of the poor, and neither can the limited Earth support a decadent lifestyle for all people of the world. (MP)

DECEIVE: 1. Mislead, persuade of what is false. 2. Be mistaken or making general claims on the basis of partial knowledge. (IP)

DECEPTION: Written or oral communication to others of what one knows to be untrue or contrary to fact. (DM)

DECIBEL: Unit of volume or loudness; a whisper is about 10 decibels and pain becomes apparent at volumes greater than 120 decibels. Loud or continuous sound may be considered noise pollution. (See NOISE) (MP)

DECIDUOUS FOREST: Vegetation communities in which trees lose their leaves once a year during a beautiful ‘fall’. Climate is typically moderate/temperate with rain and distinct seasons. Trees involved include oak, maple, hickory, chestnut and beech. (See HABITAT TYPES) (MP)

DECISION ANALYSIS: A strategy for decision making in which management alternatives are made explicit, probabilities assigned t chance events, and numeric values given to potential outcomes. (See DECISION MAKING). (DM)

DECISION MAKING: See DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS.

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM: A model, planning framework or analytical device, often software, applied to data as an aid in the processes of decision-making or problem-solving. (See EXPERT SYSTEM) (MP)

DECISION THEORY: See DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS, DECISION TREE.

DECISION TREE: Graphical representation displaying options, risks and the decision-making sequence. Decision trees and decision tables are used for optimizing solutions when there are a limited number of alternatives and a single goal (multi-criteria decision analysis is used for decision-making with multiple goals). (See DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS, DECISION ANALYSIS) (MP)

DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: See UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS.

DECOMPOSITION: The breaking down of dead organic matter into its constituent minerals and elements. The study of decomposition plays a part in ecology and in forensic investigations. ‘Decomposers’ such as fungi and bacteria play an important ecological role in the recycling of nutrients. ‘Biodegradable’ products should break down into organic molecules which can decompose. (See BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE, BIODEGRADABLE, FUNGI, FORENSIC SCIENCE) (MP)

DECONSUMERISM: See DEMATERIALIZATION.

DEDUCTION: Mathematical type reasoning, in which conclusions are derived from premises by means of established methods of reasoning. A classic example of deductive reasoning was Euclid's Elements , which is the basis for the geometry learned in schools to this day. Aristotle's Prior and Posterior Analytics set forth principles of deductive reasoning. A more modern example is Principia Mathematica, by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead. Methods developed by philosophers, in exploring the theory of deduction over the years, formed the basis of the logic used today in computer science. This shows that not all philosophy is impractical. (FL)

DEDUCTIVE REASONING: The kind of reasoning used in deduction. (See DEDUCTION). (FL)

DEEP BLUE: ‘Deep Blue’ is the coming era of Artificial Intelligence. (See ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)

DEEP ECOLOGY: 1. A value system which assigns an intrinsic value to natural systems and places nature within a system of morality or ethics, and which recognizes the ecocentric nature of our existence and the synthesis and interrelatedness of human cultures with ecological environments. Deep ecology is one of the most ecocentric of the preservationist green ideologies, and may also be referred to as ‘ecologism’, ‘deep green’ or ‘Gaian’ viewpoint. 2. Global management strategies promoted by deep ecologists include reduced human population, a reduction in the scale of economic consumption, holistic management of whole systems, environmental codes of conduct, limits of acceptable change, decentralization of autonomy, renewable resources and energy, bioregionalism, sufficiency, sustainability and the ethical use of appropriate technology. (See DEEP DESIGN VALUE SYSTEMS, ECOLOGISM, ECOCENTRIC, GAIA HYPOTHESIS, SUFFICIENCY, STRONG SUSTAINABILITY, HABITAT CONSERVATION, ENVIRONMENTAL CODE OF CONDUCT, INTRINSIC VALUE, GOLDEN RULE, GREEN) (MP)

DEEP DESIGN VALUE SYSTEMS: Value systems which take into account the wider, long-term ecological issues of sustainability, esthetics and bioethics within the holistic framework of environmental management; for example by taking account of the fundamental importance of symbiotic relationships, a deep value system contrasts starkly with the simplistic and materialistically driven short-term approaches, which could well be described as "shallow design value systems" (see DEEP ECOLOGY). (IP)

DEEP FREEZING: Typically refers to the freezing of gametes (sperm and eggs) and embryos. Frozen human and animal semen are routinely used and more sophisticated techniques for eggs and embryos are being developed. The main ethical questions which arise in the context of human material are for how long gametes and embryos should be cryopreserved and what should happen to them if the donor(s) die. The Warnock Report (UK Committee reported in June 1984) recommended that storage of embryos could be for a maximum of 5 years and gametes for a maximum of 10 years and that said embryos and gametes could only be stored with the signed consent of the donors, and could only be used by the license holder responsible for storage for the purposes specified in the consent; for example, for infertility treatment or for research. The sale and purchase of human gametes and embryos should be controlled so as to avoid the risk of commercial exploitation. (See CRYOBIOLOGY, CRYOGENICS, CRYOPRESERVATION). (IP)

DEGREE CENTIGRADE : See CELCIUS DEGREE (°C)

DEGREES OF FREEDOM: 1. The statistical latitude available in a test of significance, related to the number of observations (n) in a data set. 2. More broadly, perhaps may refer to the degree of development of a country in relation to human rights and freedoms, as measured for example by the Human Freedom Index. (See ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, HUMAN FREEDOM INDEX) (MP)

DEINSTITUTIONALIZED PERSONS: Persons who have been released from mental institutions. (DM)

DEIST: Natural religion of the eighteenth century, practiced by Alexander Pope (1688-1744) and Jean-Jacques Rosseau (1712-1778). (JA)

DELETION: Gene or DNA segment that is absent from a chromosome. Deletions of coding sequences usually lead to pathological phenotypes. Deletion of anonymous sequences are often retained as population markers during evolution. The counterpart of deletions are duplications of the same chromosomal region, which should statistically be equally frequent if no selective pressures operate on them. (GK)

DELIBERATION: Careful thought requiring a not insignificant amount of time. (MR)

DELUSION: (Latin: deludere "to cheat") Aberrant beliefs which are disproportionate to one’s own knowledge and perception. Delusions may be symptoms of psernal force (schizophrenia). (MP)

DELPHI METHOD: A Delphi study is a method of reaching expert opinion on an issue of significance. A number of experts are consulted for their opinions, and the results are collated and returned for various revisions in an attempt to achieve relative agreement or consensus. (See CONSENSUS) (MP)

DEMATERIALIZATION: The process of reducing human consumption of materials. Although contrary to the current economic paradigm of growth, dematerialization will be essential for allowing equity of human wellbeing whilst conserving ecosystem life-support services in line with requirements for sustainable development. Eminent authorities such as the World Resources Institute and Wuppertal Insitute have cited the dematerialization requirement at Factor 10, or a staggering 90% reduction of current material consumption in developed countries. This was the central recommendation of the Factor 10 Club Carnoules Declaration in 1994. Factor 10 should be achievable using present technologies, and has been acknowledged by governments like Sweden, Denmark and Austria. There are lighter recommendations in the Club of Rome report ‘Factor 4: Doubling Wealth - Halving Resource Use’ (1997). The dematerialization component of sustainability requires much work in the face of powerful growth-oriented global institutions and corporations. (See DEMILITARIZATION, OVERDEVELOPED NATIONS) (MP)

DEMENTIA: (Latin de 'out' + mens 'mind'). A progressive organic mental disorder characterized by deteriorated memory control, personality disintegration, confusion, disorientation and degeneration of intellectual capacity and function. Organic forms of dementia are generally progressive and incurable; however, recent studies have shown that about 10% of patients with dementia have conditions for which treatment can reverse the otherwise irreversible decline of mental function. Progressive dementia, known as senile and multi-infarct (arteriosclerotic) dementia, is most often diagnosed in the elderly.  Kinds of dementia include Alzheimer's disease, secondary dementia resulting from another concurrent form of psychosis, senile dementia and toxic dementia resulting from excessive use of poisonous substances. (See PSYCHOSIS; Alzheimer's Disease; INSANITY ). (IP)

DEMILITARIZATION: Transition to a sustainable world involves reducing national emphasis on threat of force, arms races, conscription, weapons proliferation, defense spending, military-industrial economy, gun ownership and violent media. Demilitarization is re-allocation of technologies from defense to civilian applications. This can be economically successful, as with Japanese post-war electronic, mechanical and optical products, and Japan’s Constitutional restricti to peacekeeping, homelandpeace building roles, to dons. (See DEMATERIALIZATION, PEACEKEEPING, NON LETHAL WEAPONRY, ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM) (MP)

DEMOCRACY: (Greek: demokratia, combining demos 'the people' + kratein 'rule') Government by the people; state so governed by direct or representative representation. The system of government first evolved in ancient Greece when all citizens, including the poor, had access to the market place where the orators spoke and the politicians stood and took part in the democratic processes for the election of their rulers [Greek demokratia where demos the people and Kratein rule]. (IP)

DEMOCRACY PARADOX: See WESTERN DECLINE.

DEMOCRATIC: 1.literally: rule of the people. When it refers to a mode of governing in modern states, it describes a particular way of will formation that goes from the bottom up, that is, theoretically includes every citizen (“Citizen” does not coincide with “human being”. “Citizen” commonthe term “citizen” did not include individuals that were regarded as being of minor dignity, like women, slaves, peasants). Since the purest form of democracy, that is, the participation of every citizen in every single act of governmental will formation (see Jean-Jaques Rousseau, Social Contract ) is not feasible in modern states, when we speak of “democracy”, we refeanction tt and transparent court system is essential in a democratic system. “Democratic” also refers to a mode of will formation in communities or ad hoc groups of people, which includes everybody in the decision making process, instead of subjugating the group to the rule of one. (BP)
2."Demos" means people in Greek, and a democracy is a society ruled by the people.  Some democracies, like ancient Athens, are  "direct" in the sense that the people directly vote whether they are in favour of, or oppose a proposal. Direct democracy still exists in relatively small groups, like the New England town meetings, kibbutz meetings, etc.  Modern states, however, are usually  representa t ive democracies, in which decisions are made by elected representatives.  It is sometimes remarked that a democracy is dictatorship for four years. The idea of modern democracy developed together with the reorganization of church government during the 16th and 17th century Protestant reformation in Europe.  The Catholic Church heirarchy ruled from the top down, by means of the priesthood, who essentially told the people what to believe. The Protestant reformers introduced an idea of the "priesthood of all b elievers".  They believed that if you read the (Christian) Bible with faith, the Holy Spirit will enlighten you, and your interpretation will be as valid, or more valid than the priestly interpretations.  This lead to the idea that the  congregation of b e lievers has the major authority in church government. The people, in Protestantism,  do not take orders from the priest, but appoint or hire a minister to help them with this religious needs. The minister can be hired or fired by the people. Political dem o cracy is  only a secular application of this religious idea, with  elected politicians gaining their authority from the consent of the governed. Democracy has been strongly criticised by anarchists, who have  argued that there is really no difference betw e en monarchy, democracy, dictatorship, etc.  In any system, they argue, those who are gifted at manipulating and exploiting other people will rule.  The differences between "elected representatives", "nobility", "commissars" etc etc, are only differences i n name. But in fact, the anarchists argue, they are all the same people. (FL)

DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLE: An attribute of an individual for use in social surveys such as the census, demographic variables include such things as age, sex, marital status and standard of living. (See AGE/SEX PYRAMID, DEMOGRAPHY) (MP)

DEMOGRAPHY: (Greek: demos 'populace') Scientific study of human populations, for example size, structure, distribution and other population statistics. (See POPULATION) (MP)

DEMONS: Evil, supernatural spirits. (MR)

DENDRITES: are the processes or nerve fibers that carry impulses towards nerve cells. Each neuron has many dendrites. (See AXON, NEURON) (IP)

DENDROCHRONOLOGY: A study of the annual ring patterns in trees to date past events and past climatic conditions. (JA)

DENSITY-DEPENDENCE: widely observed phenomenon in which populations of cells or organisms are naturally regulated - one or more factors act as (a) increasing brakes on population increase with increase population density, and/or (b) decreasing brakes on population increase with decreased population density. Bioethical concern point out how humans actively seek to avoid the natural controls of their own population size, whilst interfering with the life cycles of other organisms on an ongoing basis. (see BALANCE OF NATURE) (IP)

DENTISTRY: See DENTAL ETHICS.

DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS: Theories of ethics which hold that some actions are morally obligatory regardless of their actual or anticipated consequences. (See DEONTOLOGY) (DM)

DEONTOLOGY: A theory according to which actions are judged right or wrong based upon inherent right-making characteristics or principles rather than on their consequences. A branch of moral philosophy with emphasis on duty, rules and regulations, principles and moral obligations which govern ones" right action. (DM, JA)

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID: See DNA.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE: In statistics, the variable or attribute which is thought to be affected or influenced by the independent variable. The dependent variable is also known as the response variable or criterion. (See VARIABLE, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE ) (MP)

DEPERSONALIZATION: A loss of one’s feeling of se of depersotom of schizophrenia or severe depression in which there is a loss of emotional connection to important life events or personal qualities. (See DISSOCIATION, DESENSITIZATION) (MP)

DEPRESSED IMMUNE SYSTEM: pertaining to the condition where the general activity of the immune system is functioning inefficiently. The condition enables low virulent bacteria, viruses, yeasts and fungi to become established and cause infection. There are always organisms present in the body and the environment, which a healthy immune system can readily keep in check. Depression of the immune system may be caused by cytotoxic drugs, radiotherapy as in the treatment of cancer, anti-inflammatory drugs such as corticosteroids, diseases such as AIDS, leukemia, tumors of the lymphoid tissue, cancer and the use of unsterile syringes and unhealthy lifestyles such as encountered by drug addicts. (See IMMUNE SYSTEM, IMMUNITY, AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE, AIDS). (IP)

DEPRESSION: Depression is a mood disorder characterised by severe emotional disturbance due to feelings of sadness, despondency, dejection or despair. A minimal requirement for its diagnosis is set down by the World Health Organization in the International Classification of Diseases as "a period of at least two weeks in which there is a depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities". Causes of depression may include bereavement, illness, anxiety, relationship breakdown, postnatal stress, work or social failure, seasonally affective disorder, loneliness, life instability or low self esteem. The illness also sometimes has a hereditary component, and may be divided into endogenous (implying a genetic predisposition), or reactive (induced by external life events). The condition may be difficult to diagnose as it ranges from mild melancholia (dysthymia) to major chronic depressive disorder. Common symptoms include: loss of interest in enjoyable activities, lowered initiative, inability to concentrate or make decisions, decreased efficiency, fatigue or sleep disorders, change in weight, sullen attitude, negativity, irritability, feelings of guilt or worthlessness, loss of hope, and possible contemplation of suicide. The majority of cases will undergo remission without treatment, however relapse is also common and a combination of psychological counselling and temporary drug treatment may be helpful (e.g. Prozac, Lithium or St John’s Wort). Most important is addressing the underlying causes, perhaps involving a change in physical or social environment. Approximately 10% of people will have a major depressive episode during their lives. Females seem twice as susceptible, though male statistics may be underestimated due to non-reporting. Depression also occurs in children. The incidence of depression seems to have increased over recent decades, however it is not certain whether this represents an actual increase or improved identification of the condition. (See also UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION, BIPOLAR DEPRESSION, POSTNATAL DEPRESSION, SEASONALLY AFFECTIVE DISORDER, PSYCHOSIS AND DEMENTIA) (IP & MP)

DEPRESSION ENDOGENOUS: See ENDOGENOUS DEPRESSION.

DEPTH OF COVERAGE: See BREADTH OF COVERAGE.

DESCARTES, RENE: (1596-1650) French mathematician, physicist and physiologist, who wrote philosophical treatises (The Discourse on Method and the Meditations on First Philosophy) to attempt to make his science palatable to a religious and university world in which Aristotelian philosophy and science were so entrenched that they were almost regarded as inseparable parts of Christian doctrine. Descartes is regarded as the modern father of "dualism", the idea that we have both souls and bodies. It is generally accepted that, in Descartes' philosophy the soul and the body have equal status, or perhaps the soul is even more important. But his "real distinction between soul and body" really opens the way for a mechanistic scientific approach in which we can study the workings of the body through Cartesian physiology and mathematical physics with no need to take the soul into account. So perhaps Descartes is more the father of modern secular science than of spiritual philosophy. But Newton's fame quickly eclipsed that of Descartes.

Descartes lived at a time when sailing ships and empires were increasingly opening contact and trade with Asia. He called his major philosophical work: "Meditations", and in it he tries to forget by doubting, at least temporarily, his education, his cultural heritage, indeed to empty his mind of thoughts, imaginations and memories, until enlightenment in the form of what he called "clear and distinct ideas", should finally appear. The similarity to Zen and to the Tao are too great for so many years to have passed without someone's writing a doctoral thesis exploring the connexion. (FL)

DES: see DIETHYLSTILBESTROL.

DESENSITIZE: (Latin: de "away from" + sentire "feel"). 1. In biology, to render an individual less sensitive to, for example, specific allergy-producing antigens. 2. In psychiatry, to relieve an emotionally disturbed person by encouraging discussion about their traumas, phobias or neuroses and their possible origins. 3. In relation to the effects of media and culture, to decrease the normal responses of shock or disgust as a result of repeated exposure to images of violence without showing their explicit consequences (See DESENSITIZATION.) (MP)

DESENSITIZATION: (Latin: de "away from" + sentire "feel"). A technique used in behavioural therapy for the elimination of maladaptive anxieties associated with phobias and neuroses. Psychological trauma, feelings of shame or revolt from acts of violence, and inhibitions to aggression can also be decreased as a result of desensitization of the normal reactions due to frequent exposure. Such desensitization can result from repetitive violence without apparent consequences in media such as movies and video games, as well as various techniques common in military training. (See DEHUMANIZATION, DEPERSONALIZATION, DESENSITIZE, VIOLENT MEDIA) (MP)

DESIGNER BABIES: See EUGENICS.

DESIGNER DRUGS: Term coined by pharmacologist Gary Henderson referring to the use of chemical technology to illicitly produce drugs of abuse; such as methamphetamines etc. Such designer drugs and their variants are tested - self-tested - despite unknown toxic effects. Additionally the compounds manufactured are not standardized with respect to potency risking harm and death by overdosing. The major aim of this secret industry is to invent lucrative drugs not already covered by legal prohibition, however, new laws attempt to control all compounds with mood-altering intent. (See RECREATIONAL DRUGS, ECSTASY). (IP+MP)

DETERMINATION OF DEATH: Use of cardiorespiratory and/or neurological criteria to establish whether death has occurred. (See BRAIN DEATH). (DM)

DETERMINISM: The theory that for every action taken there are causal mechanisms such that no other action was possible. Determinism is the denial both of free choice and of randomness. Everything is determined in advance. There are at least three kinds of determinism: logical, theological and scientific.

Logical determinism is based on the Aristotelian Law of the Excluded Middle. There is no middle ground between truth and falsity. Any statement is either true or false. So a statement like "By the end of the 21 ^st Century, human cloning will be widespread and legal in most countries", is already true or already false. We just don"t know which. So there is no free choice about this matter or any other. Aristotle tried to avoid this problem, and to save free will, by declaring that the Law of Excluded Middle does not apply to contingent statements about the future. Those who believe in free will may applaud Aristotle, while those who do not may call his tactic artificial and unwarranted.

Theological determinism says that God already knows the future. Therefore, since God knows what we shall do tomorrow, tomorrow is already determined. Although we may be aware of ourselves actually making choices, God knew in advance exactly what choices we were going to make.

Scientific Determinism says that everything, which happens in the world, follows necessarily from the laws of science. Since we are ultimately composed of subatomic particles, are actions are the necessary outcome of the laws of particle physics. (See biological determinism). (FL)

DEVELOPED NATIONS: Since this description of the First World is based around the achievement of wealth, wellbeing and some approximation of freedom and democracy, it is convenient to extend the continuum to point out that in many respects countries may be over developed, or wastefully rich and self-interested to the detriment of equity, other nations and the global environment. (See OVERDEVELOPED NATIONS, FIRST WORLD, NORTH, DEVELOPMENT, DECONSUMERISM, DEVELOPING NATIONS) (MP)

DEVELOPING NATIONS: Common descriptive term for countries with less economic wealth or social wellbeing with an emphasis on progress and the processes of development. Terms for developing nations have propagated in the search for political correctness and the right spin. The ‘Third World’ descriptive system has endured despite criticism, geographical reorganization and diminution of the Second World. ‘South’ is ave terms such as ‘Less Developed Country’, ‘Newly Industrialized Country’ and ‘Emerging Economy’ have been used in different contexts. It is ironic that some economically-minded commentators consider the stagnating ‘Fourth World’ as not implied by the term ‘developing’ - where td more on ING, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

DEVELOPMENT: (French: développer ‘to unfold’) 1. Biology: The gradual process of growth and differentiation of an organism from the time of fertilization to the adult stage. The process of change and differentiation from a simple to a more evolved level of complexity acquired, typically, through growth, maturation and learning; for example, adaptive physical and psychological adjustments to environmental and social change. (See DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALY, DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL, GROWTH, LIFE CYCLE, ONTOGENY) (IP)
2. Environment and socioeconomics: Progress which increases the wellbeing of humans and the environment. Development is any activity or process which increases capacity to meet ecological needs and human quality of life. Too often it is accidentally or deliberately confused with the concept of growth, in particular economic growth including consumerism, commercialism, environmental destruction and demoralizing industries. Development has also been defined in many other more positive ways: poverty-reduction, modernization, infrastructure, more jobs and income, higher standards of living, more equity, democratization, increased freedom, fair trade, institutional reorganization, shift from capitalist modes of production, and socioeconomic transformation. It is internationally recognized that all large-scale development should adhere to ‘sustainable’ principlest. (See SUSLTH, STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT, DEVELOPING NATIONS) (MP)

DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALY: Any congenital defect; such as congenital heart defect, spina bifida, intellectual disability, that results from a disturbance of the normal processes of growth and differentiation during the embryonic and/or fetal periods. (See DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL; TERATOLOGY; TOXICOLOGY) (IP)

DEVELOPMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY: The study of the physiological processes as they relate to embryonic and fetal development. (See DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL) (IP)  

DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL: The full expression of an organism's latent genetic capacity. Any child's genetic potential is determined by the product of genetic endowment and by the environmental conditions, especially during prenatal development. Since the reproductive health of the parents can improve or undermine the expression of their child's genetic potential, planned pregnancies (that is, the conscious separation of fertility from sexual pleasure) should become the ethically acceptable norm. Major reproductive health determinants are lifestyle, socioeconomic conditions, medical knowledge and available services. (See INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; ADDICTION; PREMATURITY; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME) (IP)

DEVIL: An evil angel. If there are spiritual beings at all, there is certainly no evidence that all of them are good. There might be some bad ones, who give people bad advice. It is not, therefore, clear that those people who are, or who claim to be "spiritual" are any more ethical than those who are not. So-called "spiritual" people, if they are not deluded, do not necessarily receive their spiritual inspiration from healthy sources. (FL)

DIABETES MELLITUS: a complex disorder of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism primarily caused by a) the absence or malfunctioning of the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas resulting in a deficiency or complete lack of insulin secretion or by 2) defects of the insulin receptors resulting in tissues being unable to utilize circulating insulin. Insulin and glucagon (released by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans) are hormones that regulate normal glucose concentration in the blood. There are two basic types of the disease. Type I diabetes (also known as juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes) affects 15% of diabetics. Typically this form develops in children or young adults and these individuals have a total or near total lack of insulin and consequently need daily injections of insulin to prevent a life-threatening condition called ketosis where glucose and acids reach dangerously high levels in the blood. Type II diabetes (also called mature-onset diabetes, adult-onset diabetes or non-insulin-dependent diabetes) usually develops after age 40 in typically obese victims. In type II diabetes insulin is synthesized but not in sufficient quantity to control normal blood glucose levels so prompt treatment may minimize diabetic complications such as diseases of the eyes, kidney and nervous system. Gestational diabetes greatly increases the risk of stillbirth, birth defects and the development of large overweight babies due to the mother's excess glucose levels affecting normal fetal growth. Viral infections at critical periods of prenatal or postnatal development may also be implicated in the onset of the disease. Diabetes is often familial but a genetic predisposition is not the only factor since environmental and lifestyle variables interact with heredity to determine whether the disease will be expressed or not. The Australian Aboriginals have the highest rates of diabetes in the world where it is considered to be due to the abandonment of a traditional lifestyle in favor for a more sessile existence together with an unhealthy diet and excessive alcohol consumption. (See AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL). (IP)

DIAGNOSIS: (Greek dia 'thorough' + gnosis 'knowledge'). The process of identifying a disease or condition. In western medicine this is a procedure involving a medical history and listing the patient's symptoms, physical signs and results from the laboratory analysis of blood, urine, tissue biopsy or other substance which may identify clinical signs of disease. The final stage is to assemble all the relevant information in order to decide whether it fits a known pattern of disease. (IP)

DIAGNOSTIC GENETIC TESTING: Use of genetic testing in a symptomatic patient to aid the doctors in their diagnosis, treatment and management of the disease. (JA)

DIALYSIS: Dia = two, lysis = separate, Separation of soluable substances from colloids by diffusion through a semi permeable membrane, to dialyze (verb) to pass through a semi permeable membrane. (JA)

DIAZEPAM: A benzodiazepine sedative and tranquilizer traded under the name of Valium. It is predominantly prescribed in the treatment of anxiety, nervous tension, mild depression and as an anticonvulsant for epilepsy and similar disorders. Among the more serious side-effects is its addictive property, and since the drug was popularly prescribed even overprescribed to alleviate minor complaints and dissatisfactions numerous patients became dependent on the drug. (IP)

DICTATOR: Absolute ruler. Now generally used pejoratively though benign dictators exist, though rarely. (MR)

DICTATORSHIP: When dictatorship relates to a mode of governing in modern states, it labels the unrestricted power of one person (or a group of individuals), who actually monopolizes and exercises all political powers. Dictators shape rules without being subjugated to them, and their actions cannot be sanctioned by anyone. All these features stand in sharp contrast to  DEMOCRACY. Dictatorship can also refer to a particular mode of exercising power within a community or an ad hoc group of people, which is unrestrained by exterior forces and not dependent on the will formation within the group. (BP)

DICTIONARY: See LEXICOGRAPHY.

DIDGERIDOO: traditional Australian Aboriginal wind instrument from the Northern Territory made from a witchety grub-hollowed out tree trunk and emitting a mesmerizing drone. The modern perception that all Aboriginal people played didgeridoo is based on stereotypes rather than fact as its use was limited and women were not permitted to play the instrument. Nowadays it’s a most popular instrument instantly recognizable as Aboriginal whether solo, accompanying lyrics or orchestral. Contemporary music has extended the traditioadition and also has a place in modern political life (see MEN’s BUSINESS). (IP)

DIETHYLSTILBESTROL (DES): a synthetic non-steroidal hormone with estrogenic properties which was promoted between the late 1940s until its prohibition in the early 1970s for the treatment of women at risk of miscarriage. During that period its potent teratogenicity was discovered with the in utero exposed offspring suffering an increased incidence of a rare form of carcinoma of the vagina and cervix and a range of other reproductive abnormalities in both sexes. (IP)

DIFFERENTIATION:  An increase in complexity and organization of cells and tissues during development. (JA)

DIGITAL: (Latin digitus 'finger'). 1. Pertaining to a digit; that is, finger or toe. 2. Using numerical numbers (digits - as in a digital watch) that show a signal in terms of a series of numbers rather than a continuously varying value. Digital devices work by a counting process either mechanical or electronic. Early calculating machines; such as the abacus, counted with mechanical relays while modern calculators are electronic circuits. (See ANALOG, COMPUTER, QUANTUM COMPUTING). (IP)

DIGITAL FINGERPRINT: An invisible code embedded into a copyright image or other intellectual property such that any unauthorized use can be traced across the internet, sometimes even if the image itself has been digitally altered. (MP)

DILEMMA: Two lemmas, i.e. two different conclusions. A dilemma is a situation in which one can equally well arrive at either of two mutually contradictory conclusions, or decisions as to action, from the same data. Bioethics is often taught as a series of dilemmas, such as "to abort or not to abort", "to turn off the ventilator or to keep it running". Although this is not the only way to approach bioethics, it is a legitimate way. (FL)

DINOSAUR EXTINCTION: See MASS EXTINCTION.

DIPLOID: A full set of genetic material (two paired sets of chromosomes), one from each parental set. All cells except sperm and egg cells have a diploid set of chromosomes. The diploid human genome has 46 chromosomes (see haploid .). A nucleus with two sets of chromosomes (2n). total chromosome number specific for each species, double = 2n. (DM, JA +GK)

DIOECIOUS: are organisms, such as most animals and some plants like holly bushes, which have separate sexes where some of the individuals can produce only female gametes and others only male gametes (Greek di double + oikion house) (see MONOECIOUS). (IP)

DIOXIN: Dioxins such as TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin) are among the most dangerous of the persistent organic chemical pollutants, are highly toxic in small doses, and have been implicated as carcinogens and endocrine disruptors. Dioxins are a by-product of the chemical industry, contaminants of herbicides used in forestry and agriculture, and were a component of Agent Orange. Dioxin-containing compounds have been recognized as hazardous and phased out in much of the developed world. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS, SYNTHETIC HORMONE DISRUPTORS, POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS, AGENT ORANGE) (MP & IP)

DIRECT ACTION: Protests outside the institutionalized framework, for example grassroots activism, Greenpeace-style tactics, illegal public demonstrations, protest movements, computer hacking, stoppage of work, prevention of transport, ‘locking on’ to machinery, sabotage etc. (See NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION, ACTIVISM, HACKTIVISM, ECO-TERRORISM) (MP)

DIRECTED DONATION: Tissue or organ donation intended for the benefit of a designated recipient. (DM)

DISADVANTAGED: Persons lacking the basic resources or conditions believed to be necessary for an adequate standard of living. These may include, homeless persons, minority groups, etc. (DM)

DISARMAMENT: Conventions against Nuclear Weapons include: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and SALT II), Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties (START I, 1991 and START II, 1993), Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT, 1995), Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1996).

Conventions against Chemical and Biological Weapons include: Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous and Other Gases and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare (1925), Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (1993).

Conventions against Land Mines include: Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (1997).

National commitments against Missiles have generally gone through the Missile Technology Control Regime.

Agreements or restrictions on manufacture and trade in Conventional Weapons have been made difficult by the right of nations to self-defense, and economic incentives in countries with an extensive military-industrial sector of their economy. The drive to disarmament and demilitarization (See DEMILITARIZATION, WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION, CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS) (MP)

DISASSOCIATION: See DISSOCIATION.

DISCLOSURE: Revelation of information, such as the risks and benefits or economic implications of clinical or experimental procedures, to help patients or research subjects make informed decisions. (DM)

DISCOURSE: Narrowly understood as talk but nowadays typically used much more widely to mean a whole way of thinking, understanding and even constructing reality, as, for example, in 'feminist discourse'. Habermas and others have used the phrase 'discourse ethics' when talking about the conditions (listening to others, being prepared to change one's opinions, etc.) that are necessary for valid debate among people preparatory to reaching a common ethical conclusion. (MR)

DISCRIMINATION: Selection between alternatives based on observable characteristics. Discrimination may be ethically appropriate or inappropriate. It is appropriate to discriminate in favour of a job applicant when she displays certain needed skills/abilities, e.g. excellence in teaching and research when appointing an academic, more than other candidates. With certain exceptions, it is inappropriate when the criteria used are such ones as sex, religion, ethnicity and age. However, there are many contentious areas. Is it acceptable to insist that airline stewards are below a certain age? Is it acceptable to favour Christian teachers for a Christian school? Will it be acceptable to test potential airline pilots to see if they have a genetic susceptibility to heart attack? (MR+GK)

DISEASE: Common-sense and widely used though difficult to pin down term generally held to mean either the absence of health or the presence of something that actively impairs full physical and/or mental functioning. Measles, cystic fibrosis and cancers are clearly diseases. But what about the menopause, crooked teeth or short stature? Without intending entirely to deny their objective existence, diseases are clearly also human constructions with a degree of cultural specificity. (MR)

DISEASES OF ADAPTATION: are stress-induced conditions; that is, diseases of exogenous non-infectious etiology such as hypertension, cardiovascular and renal dysfunction and gastric or duodenal ulcers. They are also sometimes called 'lifestyle diseases' (see GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME, DISTRESS). (IP)

DISORDER, GENETIC: By characterizing the nature of the protein normally produced by the gene, greater understanding of the disease process can be obtained. Such an understanding help to assess the relationship of the protein to other body processes and how changes in the gene result in disease. These disorders in the genetic makeup of a person lead to disability and disease, see MULTIFACTORIAL DISORDERS, LATE ONSET DISORDERS, AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE DISORDERS AND AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT DISORDERS. (JA)

DISPERSION: See MEASURES OF DISPERSION.

DISPUTE: Not as strong connotation as conflict, a dispute is an argument or debate, often involving material considerations, which can be settled by peaceful mediation, negotiation or legal means. (See CONFLICT) (MP)

DISPUTE RESOLUTION: See CONFLICT RESOLUTION.

DISSENT: Difference in sentiment, such as an alternative opinion or separation from an established religion. Public dissent may be expressed in protest or activism, which require attention by the processes of democracy and peace building. (See ACTIVISM, PROTEST, PEACE BUILDING) (MP)

DISSOCIATION: (Latin: dis "apart" + sociatio "union") An emotional separation of normal thought processes from consciousness (dissociative disorder or reaction), for example in amnesia, somnambulism or lucid dreaming. Another form involves the splitting of individuality into multiple sub-personalities who may or may not be aware of each other, each with distinct behaviors and emotional development (dissociative identity disorder). (See DEPERSONALIZATION) (MP)

DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER: See DISSOCIATION.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO): An important component of water quality, DO is a measure of the concentration of oxygen available for biochemical activity within a water body or sample. (See BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND) (MP)

DISTRESS: Unhappy stress from the Latin dis meaning negative. In biology stress is essentially reflected in the total rate of all the wear and tear caused by life and, although it is impossible to avoid stress, a lot can be learnt about how to keep its damaging side effects to a minimum. It is argued that many common diseases can be avoided if the adaptive response to stress were more moderate and thus better controlled. For example, many nervous and emotional disturbances, high blood pressure, gastric and duodenal ulcers, certain types of sexual dysfunction, allergic, cardiovascular and renal derangements appear to be essentially diseases of inadequate adaptation. It helps to know your personal strengths and weaknesses and so adjust your life, as much as is possible, to function within these constraints. In addition, the routine incorporation of knowledgeable nutrition and relaxation (meditation, sport, music) and the ability to reduce other sources of stress when subjected to a certain particular stress help to heighten eustress and conserve the body's energy for use in areas of maximum demand and effect. (See EUSTRESS; STRESS; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME). (IP)  

DISTRIBUTION: See POPULATION DISTRIBUTION.

DIVORCE: Legal dissolution of marriage. In the UK and Australia, for example, irretrievable breakdown of marriage becomes the basis of divorce. The five main proofs of irretrievable breakdown are adultery, unreasonable behavior, desertion for two years, living apart for two years or when both partners consent to divorce. A divorce is granted provided the court is satisfied that financial and child-care arrangements are reasonable. (See MARRIAGE). (IP)

DMT: DMT is short for dimethyltryptamine, among the most powerful of the hallucinogenic recreational drugs. Usually smoked in a safe environment, its action is similarly intense but much shorter lasting than that of LSD. (See HALLUCINOGENS, LSD). (IP)

DNA, DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID: The molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a double-stranded molecule held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. There are four nucleotides in DNA: adenosine (A), guanosine (G), cytidine (C) and thymidine (T). In nature, base pairs form only between A and T and between G and C, thus the sequence of each single strand can be deduced from that of its partner. Deoxyribonucleic acid usually found in chromosomes, contains genetic triplet code - structure elucidated by Watson and Crick in 1953 Determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein. (DM, JA)

DNA COMPUTER: A computer which uses dissolved DNA molecules in a test tube for calculations rather than silicon chips (ordinary computers) or electrons (quantum computers). Leonard Adelman has demonstrated their efficacy at the University of Southern California. These energy-efficient machines are capable of performing multitudinous simultaneous calculations, providing enough power to crack codes and solve problems too complex for ordinary computing. Unlike quantum computers, they remain digital, with specific gene sequences coded as 1 or 0. Chemical processes are used for calculating, such as cutting DNA sequences with restriction enzymes and reproducing them with the polymerase chain reaction. Minor drawbacks include their technical intricacy, bulky proportions and the decay of DNA molecules, meaning that information cannot be stored for long periods of time data must be transferred to silicon computers for reliable memory. The principal drawback is their lack of versatility a unique sequence of chemical reactions is required to address each new problem, unlike all-purpose silicon computers. DNA computers may have applications similar to heavy-duty mainframe supercomputers. (See QUANTUM COMPUTING, MOLECULAR COMPUTER, COMPUTER) (MP)

DNA DATA BANKS: Collections of genetic information that are maintained for clinical, research, or law enforcement purposes. (See DATA BANKS, DNA FINGERPRINTING). (DM)

DNA FINGERPRINTING: A genetic identification procedure in which band patterns of DNA (the DNA fingerprint) from one individual or an unknown individual are evaluated for similarities with those of a known individual. Used in forensic medicine and immigration cases, and investigation of paternity. (See DNA DATA BANKS, GENETIC SCREENING). (DM)

DNA HYBRIDIZATION TECHNOLOGY: The formation of double-helix deoxyribonucleic acid from two complementary single strands. The technique is useful for comparing genome relationships between different species. Comparing human and chimpanzee DNA by the process of DNA hybridization, reveals that the DNA of humans and chimpanzees is much more similar (1.6% difference or 98.4% similarity in DNA sequences) than would be expected, given the considerable morphological differences between the two species. More recently, DNA sequencing of genes fully supports and adds detail to the data obtained from hybridization technology. (See RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES). (IP)

DNA PROBES: Segments of single-strand DNA that are labeled with a radioactive or other chemical marker and used to identify complementary sequences of DNA by hybridizing with them (see HYBRIDIZATION .). (DM)

DNA RECOMBINANTS: See RECOMBINANT DNA RESEARCH.

DNA SEQUENCE: The relative order of base pairs, whether in a stretch of DNA, a gene, a chromosome, or an entire genome. (DM)

DNA SEQUENCING TECHNOLOGY: See DNA hybridization technology.

DNR (DO NOT RESUSCITATE): A decision or order not to administer life-saving treatment, especially CPR, the next time a patient begins to fail. With respect to adults, and children sufficiently mature and intelligent to participate in the decision, it has been generally accepted that DNR is appropriate only if the patient has given an advance directive to that effect. But literature has begun to appear in which it is argued that even lacking such directives, staff and/or family can make these decisions if they clearly consider DNR to be in the "best interests" of the patient.

When the patient has not made an advance directive, a DNR decision involves grave seriousness. And even if the patient has made an advance directive, it is not always clear whether the patient's intentions apply at a certain time, or whether the patient may have undergone a change of mind. And in some countries (e.g. Israel) advance directives are not legally binding. In some places even a registrar can make a DNR decision with no need to consult others. In others, the hospital ethicist or ethics committee must be consulted. More attention might be paid to making DNR decisions ward decisions involving more than one physician, together with nurses, social workers and, of course, .whenever possible the patient and the family.
Some bioethicists think that there should be international, or nationwide, or at least hospital-wide guidelines for DNR. But others think that the issue is so complicated and the differences among individual cases so subtly different, that it is healthy for each ward staff to exercise its own judgment and conscience. (FL)

DO NO HARM: The principle of 'doing no harm' or 'not doing harm' is generally thought of as perhaps the first duty of a doctor or other health professional and appears in the HIPPOCRATIC OATH (q.v.) in the form 'at least, do no harm'. (See PRIMUM NON NOCERE ).

'Doing no harm', or NONMALEFICENCE (q.v.), is also often thought of as a duty incumbent on all moral agents. Some moral philosophers recognise no distinction between nonmaleficence and BENEFICENCE (q.v.) - 'doing good' - but most hold that they are distinct, albeit complementary. In many countries there is a legal requirement for a person not to harm others, including strangers, whereas there are only rare circumstances in which a person is legally required to help strangers. (MR)

DOCTOR-ASSISTED SUICIDE: The taking of a lethal drug provided by a doctor for the purpose of ending the life of a terminally ill patient. Central to the euthanasia debate is the reduction of extended pain and human suffering. However, the legalization of euthanasia and the concept of assisted suicide have also highlighted the dilemma within medical ethics of whether or not assistance is a breach of the Hippocratic Oath and whether the application of advanced medical technology is a breach of patient autonomy.  Most Western countries have passed laws making doctor-assisted, physician-assisted or medically-assisted suicide illegal. (See EUTHANASIA; SUICIDE). (IP)

DOGMA: An idea or doctrine which is not supposed to be questioned, if one is not to fall out of favour with a political, religious, scientific, medical, academic, etc., establishment. Dogmas are often false. But the fact that something is a dogma does not guarantee that it is false. Some dogmas are true. In science, Darwinian evolution is a kind of a dogma. But in some religious circles, its denial is a dogma. In medicine, the idea that brain death is really death is becoming a dogma. (FL)

DOLLY: A transgenic cloned farm sheep, produced by Dr. Ian Wilmut, Roslin Institute, Edinburgh, through a technique of somatic nuclear transfer in 1997. Died in 2003. See also TRACY and POLLY. (JA)

DOLPHINS: 32 species in 17 genera in the family Delphinidae and five species in four genera in the family Plantanistidae. Some people believe that dolphins have similar intellectual abilities and complexities of social organisation to the Great APES (q.v.) and so deserve comparable ethical regard. Most biologists, though, hold that this overstates the mental faculties of dolphins. Large numbers of dolphins die in fishing nets put out to catch tuna and other fish. 'Dolphin-friendly tuna' sells well in some countries as a result of consumer objections to such deaths. (MR)

DOMAIN: 1. An area of land or habitat occupied by a particular individual or species. (See POPULATION DISTRIBUTION) 2. Descriptive term for a general collection of related pieces of information, usually studied by specialists within a particular profession; a ‘domain of knowledge’. (See KNOWLEDGE) (MP) 3. A discrete portion of a protein with its own function. The combination of domains in a single protein determines its unique overall function. (DM)

DOMINANT: A trait or condition that is expressed in individuals who have a single version of a particular gene. (DM)

DOMINANT PARADIGM: The prevailing epistemological framework or world-view, entrenched in place by inertia, tradition and established institutions. The current dominant social paradigm is techno-centric, militaristic and capitalistic, based on hard energy and hard power, treats economics as an end in itself, condones competitive, complex and fast lifestyles, places a low value on nature by destroying it for economic growth, and places a low value on human compassion evidenced by a lack of concern for other species, other people or for future generations. (See PARADIGM, ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM, HARD POWER, HARD TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOCENTRIC, TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM, URBANIZATION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, YUPPIE, DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESS, PROPAGANDA, DYSTOPIA) (MP)   

DON: See FUNGAL TOXIN.

DONOR CARDS: Cards on which a person notes their preferences regarding donation of their organs after death. (See BRAIN DEATH, ORGAN TRANSPLANTS). (DM)

DONOR GAMETES: Eggs or sperm donated by individuals for medically assisted conception. (DM)

DONOR INSEMINATION (DI): also known as artificial insemination by donor. DI is the insemination of a woman with sperm from a donor other than her husband or defacto partner. DI is much more successful than husband/partner insemination with a reported 60% birth rate after six insemination cycles and is, therefore, one of the major treatments for male infertility. The technique is routinely used in Australia, Europe, and the US. As an example of its popularity, over 30,000 DI births were registered in the US in 1987. (See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION, ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION BY HUSBAND) (IP)

DOPAMINE: Is a major neurotransmitter coordinating brain function through an extensive network of synapses. Dopamine functions as the messenger of the brain’s reward system; that is, it generates the subjective feeling of pleasure or happiness and for this reason has been dubbed the ‘courier of addiction’. Heroin, cocaine, each drug's characterones that control tha and acute schizophly-induced manic-depressive psychosis.  (See HAPPINESS; BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS; LIMBIC SYSTEM; ADDICTION; SCHIZOPHRENIA) (IP)

DOPE: Colloquial for marijuana (or recreational drugs in general). "Dope" refers not only to the brain’s dopamine neurotransmitter but also to the dumb or "dopey" behavior of the stoned marijuana smosarily the emotional mind and its creativity). For example memorization, sustained concentration and attention to arithmetic are temporarily disorganized. (See MARIJUANA). (IP+MP)

DOUBLE BLIND EXPERIMENT: An experiment or medical trial where neither the researcher nor the subjects know which treatments or placebos are given to which subjects. (See CLINICAL TRIALS, EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS, CONTROL GROUPS, PLACEBO) (MP)

DOUBLE EFFECT, LAW OF or DOCTRINE OF or PRINCIPLE OF: The theory that an evil effect is morally acceptable provided a proportional good effect will accrue, evil is not intended, the evil effect is not the means to the good, and the action is not intrinsically evil. (See AQUINAS, THOMAS). (DM)

DOUBLE HELIX: The shape in which two linear strands of DNA are bonded together. (DM)

DOVE: 1. A bird from several species within the pigeon family Columbidae, often smaller than the pigeons and white or blue-gray. A dove is said to have delivered an olive branch to Noah’s Ark to indicate the end of the great flood. The dove is considered a symbol of peace, innocence and gentleness. 2. A colloquial term for a politician or international statesperscy, conciliation and peaceful resolution over threats of aggression or armed conflict. (See HAWK) (MP)

DOWN'S SYNDROME: Due to abnormal meiosis, non separation of a paired chromosome resulting in trisomy 21 aneuploidy in humans with 24 chromosomes. Symptoms mental retardation, mongoloid eyefolds, short stature, abnormal hands, feet and palm prints. See SYNDROME. (JA)

DREAM: (Middle English dreem 'joyful noise'). The manifestations of conscious thoughts, feelings and images during the rapid-eye-movement stage of sleep. Sometimes a dream may actually be acted out by the dreamer as in, for example, sleep-walking, sleep-talking and the performance of other acts during sleep which the dreamer has no recollection of on awakening. The whole question of the interpretation of dreams was put on a new basis in the 20 ^th century by the work of Sigmund Freud and his followers. Freud and his school of psychoanalysts regarded the dream as the direct road to the 'unconscious' mind and consequently used it as a means to the patient's unconscious thoughts, emotions and illnesses. Dream analysis - the process of gaining access to the unconscious mind by means of examining the content of dreams, usually through the method of free association - is accepted as being a useful tool in psychotherapy. (See FREUD, SIGMUND). (IP)

DREAMING ECOLOGY: see DREAMTIME.

DREAMTIME or DREAMING: the Dreamtime refers to the beginning or Creation in the ancient past during which Australia was constructed as a land of hundreds of distinct Aboriginal countries. The Dreaming, on the other hand, refers to the ongoing connection over all time as defined by language, belief systems, cultural practices and social organization as guided by the spirit ancestors. The Dreamtime is the story of how the Spirit Ancestors created the land with its natural features, sky, sun, moon and star systems, all based on the understanding of Earth as Mother - the giver and provider of all life. The Dreamtime also provides the spiritual affiliation with the land and the method of responsible custodianship to land which cannot be owned, sold or given away (see Corroboree; Sacred Sites & Totemism). Spiritual beliefs and practices vary widely among Aboriginal language groups, however, central to their spirituality is the identification with land and the Dreaming’s creative force where land remains eternally sacred - the source from which the ancestral spirits continue to render to its people the biological and sowisdom for healthy living. The Dreaming, as representing a complex social organization of political systems and relationships of peoples to land and spiro assumed that the land was not being owned; thus he adopted the concept of Terra Nullius (land belonging to no one) and claimed Australia for the EmpireOW SERPENT; NATIVE TITLE LEGISLATION - AUSTRALIA & MABO CASE). (IP)

DRIFTNETS: Large gill nets of up to ten kilometers in length with floats along the upper and weights along the lower edge, designed to entangle fish whilst drifting in the current. When lost to the ocean, driftnets continue "ghost fishing" for long periods of time. Maligned as "walls of death" because of their large by-catch including marine mammals, their use on the high seas has been curtailed since 1991 by the Wellington Driftnet Convention and the 1993 UN General Assembly moratorium on large-scale driftnets. (See SUSTAINABLE FISHING) (MP)

DRUG: (French drogue "chemical material") any substance taken orally, or applied topically, or injected subcutaneously, intramuscularly or intravenously, or applied to a body cavity to treat or prevent a disease or condition. A drug when taken into the body modifies one or more of its functions. (See ADDICTION, RECREATIONAL DRUGS, DRUG ABUSE, harm minimization). (IP)

DRUG ABUSE: Drug abuse refers to the deliberate long-term self-administration of a recreational or medical drug with uncontrolled frequency, excessive dosage, and/or in combination with other drugs. This behavior is distinct from drug misuse, which is accidental or intermittent use of drugs in a way not prescribed by a physician. The adverse consequences of drug abuse may be the development of drug tolerance, dependence and addiction with resulting personal health and wider social impacts. There is also the view that under certain circumstances 'responsible' recreational use, or self-medication, of some substances where control over frequency and dosage is strictly maintained may, in fact, be efficacious and not necessarily adversely impact on the normal processes of life and health. In the latter instance the double standard is evoked when illegal drug use is automatically assumed to be drug abuse, and abuse in relation to legal drugs, such as nicotine and alcohol, is under-recognized. (See ADDICTION, RECREATIONAL DRUGS, DRUG TOLERANCE, DRUG DEPENDENCY). (IP+MP)

DRUG ADDICTION: See ADDICTION.

DRUG CULTURE: See RECREATIONAL DRUGS.

DRUG DEPENDENCY: A psychological and/or physical craving resulting from the body’s reliance on the chemical substance(s). The condition is charats effects or to avoid withdrawal symptoms. (See addiction, DRUG TOLERANCE). (IP)

DRUG INDUSTRY: See PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY.

DRUG TESTING: 1. Random mandatory drug tests in the workplace are becoming a common feature of corporate life in developed countries. This is considered by some an imposition on recreational freedoms, however may be justified especially in careers involving fair competition (e.g. sportspeople), considerable responsibility (e.g. politicians) or risk to human life (e.g. pilots). 2. Voluntary ecstasy-testing booths have been used to assess drug constituents and strength, for example in Dutch nightclubs as a harm-minimization initiative. (See HARM MINIMIZATION) (IP+MP)

DRUG TOLERANCE: Tolerance in this respect refers to the adaptation of the cellular biochemistry to accommodate a pharmacologically active substance so that progressively larger doses are required to achieve the same physiological and/or psychological effects previously achieved from smaller doses. Tolerance management is an important concept for the occasional medicinal or recreational drug user. The maintenance of a low tolerance to a drug minimizes the loss of effectiveness, health impacts, monetary costs and likelihood of addiction. (See addiction, DRUG DEPENDENCY). (IP+MP)

DUAL INHERITANCE THEORY: refers to studies that view culture and genes as providing separate but linked systems of inheritance, variation, and fitness adaptations in order to yield distinct, but interacting, evolutionary change. Inheritance in this instance refers to the idea that culture is information that is acquired socially; i.e., non-genetic, contrasting with information acquired through genetically inherited mechanisms (see MEME; HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY). (IP)

DUCHENNE MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY: A genetic disorder. (See MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY)

DUE PROCESS: Legal procedures for the protection of individual rights in accordance with established standards of fairness and justice.

DUPLICATION: Gene or DNA segment that is found twice on the same chromosome. Multigenic families have evolved by duplication of an ancestral gene. Duplications can also be aberrant, in that they arise through chromosomal rearrangements during meiosis at particular breakpoint regions. (See also DELETIONS). (GK)

DURABLE POWER OF ATTORNEY: See ADVANCE DIRECTIVES.

DUSTSTORMS: Are an unwelcome feature of the weather over arid areas, particularly at times of draught. Due to the destruction of much of the vegetation and the drying out the land, duststorms in Australia have become more severe since European settlement illustrating the importance of land management in the fight against soil erosion and climate change. Overstocking and intensive agriculture can turn areas into dustbowls. (See SOUTHERLY BUSTER) (IP)

DUTY TO WARN: A health professional's obligation to breach patient confidentiality to warn third parties of the danger of their being assaulted or of contracting a serious infection. (See CONFIDENTIALITY)

DWORKIN, ANDREA: (1946- ). American feminist writer who portrays a deeply pessimistic view of modern society in which men are presented as constructing images of women that lead to hatred and violence such as rape, battering and psychological assault. These scenarios are described in her works 'Woman Hating' 1974; 'Our Blood: Prophesies & Discourses on Sexual Politics ' 1976; 'The New Woman's Broken Heart' 1980. Dworkin actively campaigns against pornography which, since it violates equal human rights, she regards as a foremost form of sexism. These social issues are dealt with in 'Take Back the Night: Women on Pornography' 1980; 'Pornography: Men Possessing Women' 1980. (See BEAUVOIR, SIMONE DE, GREER, GERMAINE, SEXISM). (IP)

DYSGENY: The decline of the quality of the species; used to describe the trend in urban industrial society where the "fast-breeding", relative to privileged families, of the urban population represents a perceived threat.

DYSTHYMIA: See DEPRESSION.

DYSTOPIA: (Greek: dys ‘bad’ + tópas ‘place’) Expom film include ‘Metropolis’, ‘Alphaville’, ‘Akira’ and ‘ Blade Runner’, and from literature include Dante’s ‘Inferno’ (c.1307); H.G. Wells’ ‘When the Sleeper Wakes’ (1899), Aldous Huxley’s ‘Brave New World’ (1932); George Orwell’s ‘Nineteen Eighty-Four’ (1949); and William Gibson’s ‘Neuromancer’ (1984). (See UTOPIA, CYBERPUNK, BIG BROTHER, NANOTECHNOLOGY WEAPONS, INSTITUTION OF WAR, HUMAN EXTINCTION) (MP)

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