UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "E"s

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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EARTH: 1. Geology: The earth is the mineral component of the world; the soil, dirt, land, ground. 2. Mythology: one of the four ancient elements earth, fire, wind and water. 3. Astronomy: Deserving of a capital letter, ‘Earth’ is oatic some three billion years ago. (See EARTH FROM SPACE, ATMOSPHERE) (MP)

EARTH FROM SPACE: The Earth was viewed from space directly by a human for the first time with Yuri Gagarin in 1961. It has emotionally, spiritually and ethically inspired all those lucky individuals who have similarly witnesses it first-hand. Photos of the Earth as a single, limited, fragile entity floating in inhospitable space have circulated widely through the public consciousness since that time. The Earth from space has highlighted the insanity of the nuclear arms race, the fundamental limits to growth, and the possibility of human extinction, and has inspired the search for human unity and global sustainability. (See EARTH, SPACE) (MP)

EARTH SUMMIT: In 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the world's governments met in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Five major agreements came of this so-called Earth Summit:

Agenda 21 - a broad, 40-chapter statement of goals and potential programs related to sustainable development.

The Rio Declaration - a brief statement of principles on sustainable development.

The Biodiversity Treaty - a binding international agreement aimed at strengthening national control and preservation of biological resources.

The Statement of Forest Principles - a non-binding agreement on development, preservation, and management of the Earth's remaining forests.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change - a binding international agreement that seeks to limit or reduce emissions of gases associated with the potential for global warming. (RW)

EASTERN PHILOSOPHY: Buddhist, Hindu, Shinto, and other philosophies from South and East Asian countries are usually thought of as Eastern Philosophy. It is debatable whether there are common points uniting all Eastern philosophies and distinguishing them from Western ones. (FL)

EASTERN RELIGIONS: Religions originating in Asia, particularly those which originated in the subcontinent and eastward, and are not based upon Jewish, Christian or Muslim scriptures. Some Eastern religions have texts which are designated as sacred, others are based on oral traditions. (AG)

EBOLA: A type of flu like fever that causes hemorrhage. (JA)

ECCLESIASTICAL: of the Christian Church or its clergy. In ethics, the Church’s inclination to pay close attention to ethical problems when they are ecclesiastical problems. (IP)

ECHINODERMATA: The phylum of exclusively marine, invertebrate animals characterized by radial symmetry, spiny skin, and an internal calcareous skeleton. Most are pentameral having five-fold symmetry. Commonly know echinoderms are starfish, brittle stars, sand dollars, and sea urchins. (RW)

ECNC: European Centre for Nature Conservation.

ECO-: (Greek: oikos "house") Combining prefix indicating ecology or an ecological component (e.g. ecocentric, ecotourism, ecocide). It is informative to note that both the words ecology and economy are derived from the same Greek root oikos ; eco-logy (- logy "the study of" from logos "word") being the scientific study of the house, and eco-nomy (from nemein "to manage") being the management of the house. It is therefore easy to see that the economy should be subservient to and dictated by ecology - rather than today’s apparent economic orthodoxy of the other way around. (See ECOLOGY, ECONOMY) (MP)

ECOBALANCE: Ecological balance, Interaction between the environment and the living beings to bring about a steady-state - balance is not a point but a condition. (JA)

ECOCENTRIC: Viewpoint giving importance to ecological processes, living in tune with nature, an accent on ecobalance, recycling, conservation of natural resources. (JA)

ECOCIDE: Ecological genocide; the total destruction of the natural ecology and environment to make way for humans and their desires. Typically, ecocide tends not to have legal recognition as an atrocity or crime. (MP)

ECOCUISINE: (Greek oikos 'house' + French coquere 'cook'). The preparation and cooking of wild species, perhaps even ecologically endangered species. The underlying psychology of killing endangered species stems from the acceptance that humanity is prepared to nurture and protect commercially importance species while it condones mass extinctions in the wild. The expectation is that once an ecologically unique dish has gained popularity, the species will be saved through efforts at sustained agri- aquaculture, domestication, or enhanced environmental protection. Several formerly threatened species; such as the crocodile, have been given a reprieve by enhancing their gastronomic attractiveness. (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES; ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT). (IP)    

ECOFRIENDLY: A concept of living in consonance with nature, employing technology that preserves the beauty and integrity of ecosystem. (JA)

ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY: 1. the assemblage of species that makes up the biota of a habitat. 2. a human settlement that tries to minimize its adverse environmental impacts. (RW)

ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS: See NATURAL CAPITAL, ETHICAL INVESTMENTS, ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT: A measure of consumption, our ecological footprint is an amount of land area which represents our resource use. Ecological footprint analysis converts our use of materials and energy into hectares of land per person required to provide these resources. It is an illustrative indicator of individual or collective human impact which highlights concepts such as natural capital, carrying capacity and ecological limits. (See CONSUMPTION, FLOWS) (MP)

ECOLOGICAL HOTSPOTS: See BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS.  

ECOLOGICAL INDICATORS: See INDICATOR SPECIES, ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS.

ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY: 1. The cohesion and intactness of the web of life comprising the ecological system - unpredictable consequences may arise from human disturbance of the ecological integrity. 2. An innate awareness of the total interdependence of living things functioning as both a scientific and philosophical moderator as expressed in the phrases ‘thinking ecologically’ and an ‘ecological point of view’. (See ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; GAIA HYPOTHESIS). (IP+MP)  

ECOLOGICAL JUSTICE / ECOJUSTICE: A principle that links social justice with environmental quality, that which is due to the ecosystem. The right of each components of an ecosystem to be free from human exploitation and to be free from destruction, discrimination, bias and extinction. A principle that deals with solidarity of creation that ensures sufficiency and sustainability avoiding disposal of /poisonous/ toxic/hazardous wastes like nuclear wastes that threaten the fundamental right to clean air, land, water and food. (JA)

ECOLOGICAL LOCATION: A composite expression referring to the combination of ‘location’ where the human and nonhuman is situated in the web of biotic communities, contrasting with ‘social location’ which is restrncentrates on the location of all the biosphere’s inhabitants and how these interspecies relatigy. (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; GAIA HYPOTHESIS). (IP)

ECOLOGICAL NICHE: A particular physical habitat or resource that is exploited by an organism. Niches often are defined in terms of food (e.g., carnivore or detritivore) or a functional role in an ecosystem (e.g., primary producer, consumer). (See NICHE, NICHE DIFFERENTIATION). (RW)

ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES: Ecological processes are the which Ecosystem services are They include environmental processes such as chemical transformation, phase transfer and mass transfer. Evolutionary processes include natural selection, punctuated equilibrium and speciation. Biological development processes include meiosis, mitosis, differentiation, growth and ontogeny. Human socioeconomic development introduces a whole new set of disruptive ecological processes, investigated by Environmental Impact Studies. (See PROCESS, ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES) (MP)

ECOLOGICAL REHABILITATION: See RESTORATION ECOLOGY.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION: The sequence of ecological communities that grow in a habitat. Typically, a pioneer community becomes established after a disturbance. This pioneer community will be displaced by various successors until the establishment of a climax community, which, by definition, is essentially stable until the next disturbance. (RW)

ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A variant of the term "Sustainable Development" emphasizing the underlying importance of ecological integrity to human life. The ecological component cannot however be separated from the economic and social components. Theoretically committed to the concept, the Commonwealth Government of Australia (1990) defined it as follows: "Ecologically sustainable development means using, conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that the ecological processes on which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in the future, can be increased." (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT). (MP)

ECOLOGISM: A green philosophy which emphasizes the need for deep social, economic, political and environmental reform in preparation for a post-industrial sustainable future - in comparison to environmentalism, which involves reform within the boundaries of the current sociopolitical system. Ecologism has similar viewpoints to deep ecology, including recognitions of an ecocentric perspective, biophilia, limits to growth, and the radical restructuring of existing institutions and ideologies. (See DEEP ECOLOGY, DEEP DESIGN VALUE SYSTEMS, GREEN, ECOCENTRIC, BIOPHILIA, ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM, ACTIVISM, ENVIRONMENTALISM, DEMATERIALIZATION) (MP)

ECOLOGY: (German: Ö kologie from Greek oikos "house") The branch of biology dealing with living organisms" distribution, behavior, mode of life and relations to their surroundings. The word was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869, derived from the Greek root "oikos" which means "dwelling place, place to live, house" (i.e. environment). Defined as the study of the structure and function of nature in which human beings are a part. Ecology includes all the patterns of relationship between all organisms and their environments. (See ECO-, ECOSYSTEM, ECOSPHERE, ECOCIDE, ENVIRONMENT, HABITAT, ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS, HUMAN ECOLOGY) (JA)

ECONOMETRICS: Application of mathematics and statistical principles in economics so as to test economic theories and their relationship and to make quantitative predictions. (JA)

ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY: See EFFICIENCY.

ECONOMIC GROWTH: See GROWTH.

ECONOMIC SANCTIONS: Economic sanctions have been questioned on grounds of effectiveness, equity and ethics. They impose budgetary losses to neighboring third-party states, or may involve unilateral political gain or manipulation. But most importantly, economic sanctions usually have a devastating effect on community health and wellbeing in the affected country. Limited resources may be disproportionately allocated to elites and the military, leaving innocent citizens to bear the brunt of the impacts of the sanctions. For example, the ‘Oil for Food Programme’ during United Nations sanctions on Iraq was inadequate to prevent an estimated 5,200 preventable deaths in under 5-year olds per month between 1991 and 1998 (UNICEF 1999) due to lack of access to basic facilities. (See SANCTIONS) (MP)

ECOPHYSIOLOGY: The branch of biology investigating the physiological structures, functions and adaptations which enable organisms to survive in interaction with their ecosystem and physical environment. (MP)

ECOPSYCHOLOGY: Psychological study of the human mind in relationship, interaction and affinity with nature. It has been a long-held theme that divorce from nature (or the natural order of things, e.g. Macbeth) may precipitate mental instability. This may be of relevance in this modern world of invented physical and virtual environments. (MP)

ECOSPHERE: biosphere is an ecosphere, meaning the existence of various types of habitats and biomes. Indicates the living relationship between all of earths' living beings with the physical environment. Ecosphere = Biosphere. (JA)

ECOSYSTEM: first proposed by the British ecologist A.G. Tansley in 1935.It is derived from two words, ecology and systems to mean ecological systems, shorted to ecosystem. A functional unit and a dynamic system. It signifies the interaction between community and abiotic components such as matter and energy. (See also MICROECOSYSTEM) (JA)

ECOSYSTEM FRAGMENTATION: Biodiversity impacts of ecosystem fragmentation include disruption of migration and foraging routes, reduced genetic exchange, isolation of ecological communities and exposure to edge effects, weed invasions etc. Experimental studies reviewed by E.O. Wilson suggest that a tenfold decrease in land area will approximately halve the number of species present, although the specific area-species curve is dependent on the ease of dispersal of given organisms. As with conservation of endangered species, focus has been on the effects of small size on population persistence, and must address the causes of such reductions in size and connectivity. These causes include expansion of human-dominated ecosystems, creation of edges (e.g. roads), creation of barriers (e.g. dams), land clearing, monoculture, hunting/harvesting, removal of food-web species, separation of mutualistic organisms, habitat competition from introduced species, introduced predators, and other ecosystem disruption and destruction. (See HABITAT FRAGMENTATION, HABITAT DESTRUCTION, EDGE EFFECTS, BUFFER ZONES, WILDLIFE CORRIDORS, RESTORATION ECOLOGY) (MP)

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: Humans are ultimately dependent upon the functions and services of ecological systems. Ecosystem services are the supply and restoration processes essential to the functioning of the life. They may break down wastes (e.g. biogeochemical cycles), provide shelter, energy and oxygen (e.g. forests) or protect us in other ways (e.g. the ozone layer). Although usually taken for granted, these services are provided free by ecosystems, but end up costing heavily if damaged or destroyed. Essential ecosystem services are ‘critical natural capital’ which must be conserved to provide our global life-support system. (See CRITICAL NATURAL CAPITAL) (MP)  

ECO-TERRORISM: The use of fear and violence in the cause of environmentalism or to save ecology facing destruction. Or more broadly, use of violence in either the activist protection or the commercial extraction of ecological resources. So-called eco-terrorist groups such as the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) may conduct illegal activities, usually against property, but lives are also confronted and lost as a result of ecocide, inappropriate technologies, habitat destruction, threats to biodiversity, justifications for war, and ironically some officially sanctioned fighting against illegal loggers and big-game wildlife poachers. (See ECOCIDE, HACKTIVISM, DIRECT ACTION, NONVIOLENT RESISTANCE, POACHING) (MP)

ECTOMORPH: A person with an extreme body type typified by thin frame, long limbs and narrow features. People with a high degree of ectomorphy may suffer from physical fragility, sunken features and difficulty gaining fat or muscle. (See ENDOMORPH, MESOMORPH, ANOREXIA NERVOSA) (MP)

ECTOPIC PREGNANCY: A pregnancy that occurs outside the uterus, usually in a fallopian tube. (DM)

ECOTOURISM: There are a range of definitions. One definition is from Honey, M. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? (Island Press: Washington, D.C. , 1999), " Ecotourism is travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and (usually) small scale.  It h elps educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights. " (MN)

ECUMENE: (Greek: oikoumenikos ‘of the inhabited world’) The world environment habitable to humans, or populated/inhabited regions thereof. (See ECUMENOPOLIS, ANTHROPOSPHERE) (MP)

ECUMENICAL: 1. Universal humankind. (See ECUMENE) 2. Relating to or representing the world of the Christian Church. The ecumenical movement aims at the reunion of the Christian churches, e.g. in the World Council of Churches. (See RELIGIONS) (MP & IP)

ECUMENOPOLIS: Term coined by C.A. Doxiadis referring to a futuristic world-city or extended human settlement bounded only by climatic and topographical limits. (See ECUMENE, EKISTICS, MEGALOPOLIS) (MP)

EDGE EFFECTS: Ecological impacts typically initiated along edges or by the boundaries between natural and interrupted systems. For example, a road through a rainforest will create an edge which introduces light, pests, weeds, pollution, erosion, danger to wildlife, human access, and ultimately habitat fragmentation due to the altered ecosystem along that strip. (See HABITAT FRAGMENTATION, BUFFER ZONES, WILDLIFE CORRIDORS) (MP)

EDUCATION: (Latin: educatio "rearing" or "bringing up") Systematic instruction, usually of the young, which provides people with the knowledge, skills and wisdom necessary for them to become active members of society. In its widest sense education includes the life-long process of development and maturation, but is more officially restricted to those influences brought to bear on children, adolescents and young adults preparing for the workforce. In ancient times the Greeks were one of the first civilizations to provide schooling and organized instruction (education). Jewish education also developed early, following along the lines of Old Testament injunctions regarding the training of children, and the Arab world too was very scholarly. The 12 ^th century saw the rapid development of learning in Europe during the Renaissance, heavily indebted to both Arabic and Hebrew scholarship. With the rise of Christianity, schools were instructing this religious doctrine as well as subjects such as the liberal arts, grammar, logic, arithmetic and music. The most famous university was in Paris, the chief center of philosophy and theology, while the prototype universities were England’s Oxford and Cambridge. In Catholic countries the church maintained control of education until more recently. By the 19 ^th century new approaches were coming to the fore, heralding, in the 20 ^th century, a wide variety of secular institutions such as Montessori schools and Progressive Education Movements which allow practical, self-paced development. It is now generally recognized that the state has a duty to provide education for all its citizens, for example the United Nations Development Programme’s Human Development Index uses adult literacy and education enrolment as two of its four measures. Most of the trends are for increased up-front fees for attendance at the tertiary (university) level. Australia, for examps a non-discriminatory scheme in which payment of fees can be deferred until later entry into the workforce. Pr in poor countries like Vietnam, seem reprehensible. Another trend is industry funding for university research.on of corporate confidentiality and intellectual property agreements may hinder autonomy and impartiality. Todaeer stream. This may not be preparing us for the integrated and adaptive thinking required to identify and addrl, resource-poor nations such as Singapore have realized that one of their few competitive advantages in the glocus on context and meta-knowledge; that is, in an information age where any required facts are at your fingert them. There has also been a commendable recent trend in the developed world to include current bioscience and from overriding justice in tomorrow’s increasingly complex and potentiaETA-KNOWLEDGE, ADAPTIVE THINKING, ENLIGHTENMENT THINKING, MEMORY ENHANCEMENT, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE) (IP & MP)

EEA: European Environment Agency.

EFFECT: A noun, an ‘effect’ is a result, consequence or impact resulting from some cause. You create an effect by affecting something. (See AFFECT, CAUSATION, EFFECTIVENESS) (MP)

EFFECTIVENESS: ‘Effectiveness’, or ‘efficacy’, is a mot just financial but in an overall integrated and sustainable way. The most economically ‘efficient’ process may not prove be the most effective. (See EFFICIENCY) (MP)

EFFICACY: See EFFECTIVENESS.

EFFICIENCY: 1. Mechanics: a measure of the ratio of work done to energy supplied. 2. Economics: The same concept applied to money; the ratio of value of output to value of input. Productive efficiency is the least-cost set of technologically sufficient inputs, and allocative efficiency is putting scarce resources to the most useful purposes. Different interpretations have included the straightforward economic efficiency of Adam Smith, the social employment efficiency of John Maynard Keynes, and the adaptive efficiency of Joseph Schumpeter with investment in technology and creativity. Clearly there are many forms of efficiency, others relating to the rights of workers, environment, corporate behavior, and efficiency towards sustainable development and social values. All forms of efficiency must be considered to provide balance in economic policy. Efficiency is not necessarily the same as effectiveness - depending on whether the balance of focus is on the ‘efficiency’ or the ‘equity’ component of economics. (See EFFECTIVENESS, EQUITY) (MP)

EGALITARIAN: A social philosophy that advocates human equality. (DM)

EGG: See OVUM.

EGG DONATION: See DONOR GAMETES.

EGYPTIAN BOOK OF THE DEAD: See BOOK OF THE DEAD.

EIA: See ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT.

EIGHTFOLD PATH: Ethical teachings of Buddha, describing the virtuous path from worldly suffering towards nirvana: 1. ethically correct viewpoint (e.g. selfless, desireless, compassionate), 2. right resolutions, 3. right speech, 4. right action, 5. right livelihood, 6. right effort, 7. proper mindfulness, and 8. regular practice of concentration/meditation. (See FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS, MIDDLE WAY, BUDDHISM, BUDDHA) (MP)

EINSTEIN, ALBERT: (1879-1955). German-Swiss mathematician/physicist and originator of the theory of relativity. Einstein's insight pointed out that time and space are not absolute but merely relative to the observer and that in the case of rapid relative motion involving velocities approaching the speed of light, phenomena such as decrease in size and mass are to be expected. His predicted equivalence of mass (m) and energy (E) is stated in the equation E = mc ² , where c is the velocity of light. This relationship was strikingly demonstrated in the production of nuclear power and the explosion of the atom bomb. Einstein's seminal works were 'The Basis of the General Theory of Relativity ' 1916 and 'On the Special and the General Theory of Relativity ' 1921 the same year that he received the Nobel Prize in physics. Einstein ranks with Galileo and Newton as one of the greatest conceptual thinkers and revisers of human understanding of the Universe. From the 1930s Einstein became increasingly outspoken in support of world peace and towards the end of his life he devoted himself completely to the establishment of a world government and to the eradication of warfare. One of his last acts was to sign a plea for the renunciation of nuclear weapons. (See ATOM BOMB; CLASSICAL MECHANICS; NEWTON, ISAAC; QUANTUM THEORY, PLANCK, MAX). (IP)

EIS: See ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT.

EISAI: (1141-1215) Japanese Buddhist monk and scholar. Eisai travelled to China to study Buddhism, and returned to Japan to found Zen Buddhism. In addition, Eisai introduced tea to Japan, and wrote about its health benefits. A major Japanese pharmaceutical company is also named Eisai. (AG, DM)

EKISTICS: (Greek: oikõ ‘to settle down’) The study ofropolis. (See METROPOLIS, ECUMENOPOLIS, SUSTAINABLE CITY) (MP)

EL NINO-SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON or ENSOP: refers to the warm ocean current that blows along the northern tropical coast of South America in its changing phase causing unseasonable changing weather patterns in the Americas and Pacific Region, including Australia. El Nino refers to "the child" of change as opposed to La Nina "the Child" of constancy. Great interest has been expressed in the phenomenon and whether its current greater frequency is linked to global warming and human increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. One model postulates such a relationship in which trapped heat in the CO₂-rich atmosphere increases the temperature of the oceans, triggering cycles of drought and rain. The local effects of the El Nino current were known to the ancient people of Peru long before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores (see SOUTHERN OSCILLATION INDEX & LA NINA -SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON). (IP)

ELDER ABUSE: The physical, psychological or material abuse of older adults. Elder abuse, also called ' abuse of the elderly' violates the rights and safety of the abused person and is a reportable offense. (See ABUSE, CHILD ABUSE, DRUG ABUSE). (IP)

ELECTIONS ONLINE: See DEMOCRACY, INTERNET.

ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY (ECT): applying a voltage with surface electrodes across the brain under general anesthesia or muscle-relaxants to prevent muscular convulsions, which can be hazardous. In general, electrical therapy is a valuable medical procedure used by both the radiologist and the psychiatrist, and it can be an important intervention prior to starting stabilizing drug treatment. Cardiologists call their procedures "Cardioversion and Defibrillation" ; psychiatrists call theirs "Electroconvulsive Therapy or ECT" but the two emergency procedures are similar in principle and practice. For example, when the heart muscle beats so fast that it is merely shivering, the heart is said to be fibrillating - a state of increased excitability where the blood ceases to circulate in the body. In this situation a pulse of electricity passing through the heart muscle discharges its electrical potential which stabilized and resets the conducting system of the heart until the muscle begins once more its rhythmic beat. In a mental state of extreme agitation the brain’s information too fails to flow in logical patterns; thus, a controlled electrical pulse passing across the frontal-temporal region of the brain, hegan in the 1930s as a treatment for severe schizophrenia following the observation that patients with schizophrenia and suffering spontaneous seizeing used as a convenient and quick treatment for manic depression and melancholia. In the United States of America, for example, approximately 80% that 90% of these will show a marked improvement - a significantly higher figure than that from those treated with antidepressant medication. Desputation (described as a barbaric intrusion in Ken Kesey’s book One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest which was written before the use of anesthesia). However, scientific criticism of its extensive use is justified because convulsive therapy in inexperienced hands may produce permanent brain damage, especially losses of memory and intelligence. Nowadays, the pulse of electricity in its passage through the brain is monitored by an electroencephalograph, a machine which measures brain-wave activity from electrodes placed on the scalp (see COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY, LEUKOTOMY). (IP)

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION: is the Sun’s ultimate source of energy used in driving almost all of the Earth-atmosphere system. It is within the atmosphere that the energy derived from the Sun is transformed into other forms of energy such as radiant, thermal, kinetic and potential. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, require no intervening medium for transmittance and are characterized by a wide spectrum of wavelengths ranging from the very short cosmic, gamma and X-rays, through ultraviolet, visible and infra-red radiation, to the longer wavelength microwaves and radio-waves. Increasingly sophisticated technologies are harnessing this absolute source of energy in original and creative ways. (IP)

ELECTROPHORESIS: A method of separating large molecules (such as DNA fragments or proteins) from a mixture of similar molecules. An electric current is passed through a medium containing the mixture, and each kind of molecule travels through the medium at a different rate, depending on its electrical charge and size. Separation is based on these differences. (DM)

ELEMENT: 1. Elements are the building blocks of chemistry. Elements are the simplest components of molecules that can be produced by normal chemical means. The nucleus of every atom in an element has the same number of protons. Each chemical element contains different atoms to the other elements, and gives off an individual line spectrum. The Periodic Table arranges all of the elements according to their properties. The hundred or so elements combine to create thousands of compounds with the different physical properties that make up the world. (See ATOM, ISOTOPE)
2. An element more generally refers to any single component or constituent part of a group, object, system or procedure. (See COMPONENT) (MP, RW)

ELSI: Ethical, Legal and Social Issues/implications that arise due to the current advancement in science and technology and in the history of science. A few areas where such ELSIs are faced include the human genome with regard to human diseases genes, genetic testing and screening of humans beings as well as in inter-species transfer of genes from unrelated organisms and human cloning. (JA)

EMAIL: (Electronic + mail) The term electronic mail understandably shortened itself to E-mail, e-mail and now email as it became an everyday process. Email is a cheap, fast text message delivered electronically over the Internet. Variations on a theme include attachment of files, the group mailing list (mail sent to group), and the electronic bulletin board (group comes to mail). (See WEB ADDRESS, NETIQUETTE, EMOTICON) (MP)

EMBL: European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Germany. Is famous for a DNA sequence database.  (See BIOINFORMATICS). (JA)

EMBRYO: A developing organism in an egg, seed or uterus of its mother. It includes any developing organism before birth, that is derived by fertilization, parthenogenesis, cloning or any other means from one or more human gametes or human diploid cells. Somatic formation of embryo like structures on top of the callus can be grown which can lead to cloned plants from full grown (plant) flower meristem. In human, early or preimplantation embryo refers to the first two weeks after the formation of the zygote. Embryo technically refers to the stage from the third to eighth week of development. Often the term embryo also encompasses development from the beginning up to the eighth week. A specially created embryo can be made by human technology from donor sperm and ovum, under laboratory conditions for research purposes (IVF technology). At times the US government has disallowed funding for embryo research due to ethically and morally contested questions. Source of human embryos include: 1. Elective abortion 2. IVF technology through donor sperm and oocyte of unrelated persons 3. Left over embryos in infertility treatment by couples 4. Cloned embryos. (See FETUS, PRE-EMBRYO). (DM, JA)

EMBRYO DONATION: The transfer from one woman to another of an embryo obtained by artificial insemination and lavage or, more commonly, by IVF.

EMBRYO EXPERIMENT: Why do scientists and doctors carry out experiments on early human embryos? There many aspects to this question but it's important to understand that research and advances in medicine are inseparable. Without research on embryos, for example, the Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) would never have been developed and countless infertile couples would not have been helped by modern IVF technology. However, ART procedures are not perfect and to improve their efficacy, further research is required. The area of genetic defects which amount to 2-5% of all births and about half of infant mortality, is another example where responsible embryo research would improve existing understanding of the mechanisms involved in normal and abnormal development. (See DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALY; TERATOLOGY). (IP)  

EMBRYO LAVAGE: A flushing of the uterus to recover a preimplantation embryo.

EMBRYO TRANSFER: Transfer of a human embryo into a uterus following in vitro or in vivo fertilization. (DM)

EMBRYOLOGY: the study of the origin, growth, development and function of an organism from fertilization to birth (Greek bryein to grow + logos science). (IP)

EMBRYONIC GERM CELLS (EG): Similar in function to Stem cells, derived from the primordial reproductive cells of the developing fetus. (See STEM CELLS). (JA)

EMBRYONIC PERIOD: Comprises the first 8 weeks of prenatal life where organogenesis takes place. Organogenesis is the most complex stage of development and is characterized by the formation of all organs and organ systems of the embyonic body. Each organ or organ system has a particular time during pregnancy when it is being formed called the critical period. During the critical period of intrauterine development the embryo or fetus has the greatest sensitivity to environmental influences. Striking advances during the third week is the development of somites, the heart, the neural folds and the major divisions of the brain, the neural crest, and the beginnings of the internal ear and the eye (see also FETOGENIC PERIOD, EMBRYO, FETUS). (IP)

EMBRYONIC STAGE (INTEGRATE!): A stage in human development between 15 days and 8 weeks post-conception of pregnancy. In the absence of more precise information (i.e. menstrual cycle length) conception is presumed to have taken place two weeks after the beginning of the women’s last menstrual period. The distinction of the can not yet be defined as contributing to the es have been laid down and there is a general appearance of a mammal-to-be with four limbs and a head. (JA)

EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS: (Anglo-Saxon stemm tree or trunk & Latin cella storeroom). A formative cell whose daughter cells give rise to other cell types; for example, pluripotent embryonic stem cells are capable of generating all cell types compared to the multipotent adult-derived stem cells which generate many but not all cell types. Thus, stem cells may originate from embryonic tissue and from adult tissue and both types are suitable for cloning technology; that is, therapeutic and/or reproductive. Therapeutic cloning is the cloning of embryos containing DNA from an individual's own cell to generate a source of embryonic stem cell-progenitor cells that can differentiate into the different cell types of the body. The aim is to produce healthy replacement tissue that would be readily available and due to immunocompatibility, the recipients would not have to take immunosuppressant drugs for the rest of their lives. The ethical status of embryonic stem cells is a matter of controversy because the label ‘embryo’ is asyo. Folls arts against cloning maintain that by virtue of the pre-embryo’s special status, it’s wrong to carry out destructive experiments on them. (See STEM CELL) (IP)   

EMBRYONIC STEM CELL LINE: cultured cells obtained by isolation of inner cell mass cells from blastocysts or by isolation of primordial germ cells from a foetus. Embryonic stem cells will not give rise to an embryo if placed in the uterus. (JA)

EMBRYO TRANSFER: is the procedure of transferring an in vitro fertilized conceptus into the uterus. The embryos to be transferred are loaded into a fine plastic tube which under ultrasound guidance is introduced via the cervix into the uterus and is, in most clinics, done without anesthesia (see Assisted Reproductive Technologies). (IP)

EMERGENCE: The appearance of simple large-scale behavior from complexity. Collective behavior is by its nature unpredictable, arising as it does from a complex system of rules and complicated network of subsystems all undergoing change. Emergence is the surfacing of order, from a sea of fluctuations, at a certain scale or level of organization. (See EMERGENT PROPERTIES, SIMPLEXITY, COMPLICITY) (MP)

EMERGENT PROPERTIES: The global properties and behavior of whole systems. Complex systems consist of many interacting subunits which combine to create emergent properties. The inability of reductionism to predict collective behavior is neatly encapsulated by ‘the whole is more than the sum of its parts’. Whether or not technically true, the intepossible by collectivity and organization - include economic fluctuations, social order, life, intelligence and consciousness. (See EMERGENCE, COMPLEXITY THEORY, SYSTEMS THEORY) (MP)

EMERGING PARADIGM: See ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM.

EMOTICON: (‘Emotion’ + ‘icon’) A text-based icon which communicates an emotion, commonly used as a cute form of netiquette in e-mails. For example:
smiley-face   :-)  wink   ;-)  laugh   :-D  frown   :-(  crying   :’-(
shock   :-o  say nothing   :-X  greedy $-)  angel   0:-)  devil  }:-)  
some upright versions, mostly of Japanese origin such as:
glowing smile   *^_^*   blush   @^_^@
and many others. J;  (See NETIQUETTE) (MP)

EMOTION: Emotion is the transient psychological, physiological and behavioral response to thoughts, events and social activity. A typical classification of emotions might be the following primary families: anger/annoyance; fear/anxiety; sadness/loneliness; disgust/shame; surprise/shock; pleasure/joy; love/friendship. These feelings arise from neural excitement triggered by perception, cognition or memory. The emotional brain is the limbic system, including its functional compartments: thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and pituitary gland. Emotional intelligence is self-awareness and management of one’s own emotiTIVISM, MOOD, LIMBIC SYSTEM, AMYGDALA, ANGER, FEAR, PLEASURE, JOY, LOVE) (IP & MP)

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE: A term emphasizing the range of different types of intelligence and the role that emotions play in effective communication and decision making. Emotional intelligence, as Daniel Goleman articulates in his book of the same name, is the most crucial factor in relationship and career success and involves awareness of the appropriateness of emotions we and others use as a guide to our thinking and behaviour. Components of emotional intelligence include the following abilities: self-awareness of one’s emotions and their significance, management of one’s  emotions, awareness of the emotions of others, em both thought and feeling in decision-making, stressersonal connection and effective relationships, conflict resolution, cooperation and communication. (see EMOTIONS, EMPATHY, ALEXITHYMIA) (MP)

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (EQ): E.Q. (‘Emotional intelligence Quotient’ or ‘Emotional Quotient’) is an adaptation of the more commonly known test measure I.Q. (‘Intelligence Quotient’), emphasizing characteristics of emotional intelligence such as ability to read the emotions of others and control one’s own emotions accordingly. (See EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)

EMOTIONS, EMOTIVISM: Sometimes emotions are thought of as a better guide to truth and goodness than is the intellect. David Hume (q.v.) said that "the intellect is and ought to be slave of the passions and can pretend to no other office than to serve and obey them." He also argued that ethical statements are really only expressions of how we feel about things. The ethical philosophy of emotivism is one of Hume's heirs. Although it can be debated whether intellect or emotion is a surer guide to truth, they might both be equally determined by education and cultural conditioning. (FL)

EMPATHY: (Greek: empatheia 'affection' or 'feeling into') Empathy refers to an ability to imagine or perceive the emotions or experience of another person. The word was first used in reference to physical or motor mimicry. It requires an emotive psychological identification with another's feelings and identity. Psychopaths and sociopaths may lack the empathy to make this emotional connection. Empathy is the root of compassion. (See SYMPATHY, COMPASSION) (MP)

EMPIRICAL: Derived from observation, experience or experiment rather than from conjecture, hypothesis or theory. Empirical information is based on perception with the five senses rather than thinking and rationalism. (See EMPIRICISM) (MP)

EMPIRICISM: A view or philosophy of knowledge which considers sensory experience to be the primary source of information. Locke, Berkeley and Hume are among the British Empiricists, Kant, James and Wittingstein continued the discussion, and the logical positivists (linguistic empiricism) include A.J. Ayer, Rudolph Carnap, C.W. Morris, Ernest Nagel and Moritz Schlick. (See EMPIRICAL) (MP)

EMPHYSEMA: A lung disease, genetic defect due to lack of a protein, alpha-1-antitrypsin (AAT). (JA)

EMPOWERMENT: The provision of power, usually to those seemingly without means of self-protection or control over changes affecting their life. This may include increasing the awareness of indigenous people or minority groups. Without the benefit of an outside perspective it is often difficult to understand the larger-scale system, corporate/government motivations, or avenues of protest, media coverage and/or legal recourse. (See CAPACITY BUILDING, MINORITY GROUPS) (MP)

ENCEPHALIZATION QUOTIENT: Comparative indicator of brain size in relation to body size - for example a species with EQ=1 has an average sized brain for its body size, EQ=2 refers to twice average, dolphins are said to have an EQ of about 5 and humans an EQ of around 7. (MP)

ENDEMIC SPECIES: A species that is specific in its occurrence in a particular geographical area. Like the Kangaroo of Australia. (JA)

ENDANGERED SPECIES: A species which is at very high risk of becoming extinct in the wild in the near future. This may be indicated by any of the following measures: a) a previous or projected population reduction of at least 50% over whichever is longer of a period of 10 years or three generations, b) extent of occurrence less than 5000 km ² or area of occupancy less than 500 km ² , along with population decline, fragmentation or extreme fluctuations, c) population less than 2500 mature individuals with continuing decline, d) population less than 250 mature individuals, or e) probability of extinction in the wild estimated at 20% over the longer of 20 years or five generations (IUCN Red List Categories 1994). (See CRITICALLY ENDANGERED, VULNERABLE SPECIES, THREATENED SPECIES, GHOST SPECIES, EXTINCTION) (MP)

ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS: See SYNTHETIC HORMONE DISRUPTORS.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: Refers to the body’s  hormone system released into the ls of only parts per trillion, our bodies strictly control their blood concentrations [Greek endon within + krinein to separate]. (IP)

ENDOCRINOLOGY: the study of hormones and their actions (see ENDOCRINE SYSTEM).

ENDOGENOUS: Developing or originating within the organism, or arising from causes within the organism. (DM)

ENDOGENOUS DEPRESSION: Depression arising from within the mind of the individual rather than as a result of external (exogenous) factors or life circumstances. This reflects a genetic predisposition to the disorder, usually involving a physiological imbalance in brain neurotransmitters. Often this results in recurring depressive episodes or chronic major depression, however a predisposition to its expression is not a foregone conclusion with the right lifestyle and environment. Endogenous depression may be managed, with preferably minimal pharmacological treatment, strong social support and a positive, resilient attitude. (See DEPRESSION) (MP)

ENDOMORPH: A person with an extreme body type typified by rounded frame, soft body and plump features such as abdomen larger than thorax. People with a high degree of endomorphy may suffer from difficulty shedding weight, perhaps poor self-image, and increased risk of conditions related to obesity such as heart disease. (See ECTOMORPH, MESOMORPH, OBESITY) (MP)

ENDOTOXIN: Poison produced by some gram-negative bacteria, present in the cellular membrane, and released only upon cell rupture; composed of complex lipopolysaccharide (fat-like molecule and sugar molecule) and more heat-stable than protein exotoxins. (DM)

ENDPOINTS: See ESCHATOLOGY.

ENDRIN: A dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, among the 'dirty dozen' persistent organic pollutants. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)

ENERGY: 1. A fundamental constituent of matter (e=mc ² ). 2. The capacity to do work 3. Kinetic energy (mechanical), potential energy (gravitational), electrical energy, chemical energy (molecular, nuclear), radiant energy (light, electromagnetic radiation) and heat energy. 4. The capacity to cause change in a system; origin of processes, system dynamics. 5. Energy sources: oil, coal, natural gas, ethanol, wind, water, biomass, chemistry, geothermal, nuclear, and the primary energy source for living systems on Earth, the sun. 6. Energy utilization and technologies: e.g. nuclear fission/fusion, renewable energy technologies, alternative/soft energy, energy efficiency. (See MOMENTUM, ENTROPY, WORK, MATTER, PROCESS, HEATING, ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION, SOFT ENERGY, RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES) (MP)

ENERGY BALANCE: See GLOBAL ENERGY BALANCE.
ENERGY CONSERVATION: See LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.

ENGINEER: (Old French: engignier "to contrive", from Latin: ingenium "talent") The engineer uses materials and processes in the invention, design, planning and construction of systems, products and infrastructure. To engineer is also to originate or cleverly plan an outcome. For the engineer, difficult technical problems must be identified and choices made for the deployment of applied solutions in the face of social and ecological risk and uncertainty. (See ENGINEERING, ENGINEERING ETHICS) (MP)

ENGINEERING: Engineering is the vehicle for the realization of technology. Using information generated from science, engineering oversees the transformation of raw materials into technology. The engineering profession is commonly divided into mechanical, civil, electrical, chemical, aeronautical and military engineering. Such purview indicates the ethical responsibility implicit in this sector and its control over the course of development and change. (See ENGINEER, ENGINEERING ETHICS) (MP)

ENGINEERING ETHICS: Engineers solve problems and build infrastructure within a set of physical, environmental, economic and design constraints. Among those constraints is an ethical duty of care to social and environmental needs. Human and environmental wellbeing are the driving forces rather than individual or commercial desire. Social and ecological requirements are introduced into engineering through regulatory methods like the precautionary principle and environmental impact assessment, and through ethical codes of conduct. Examples of engineering codes of ethics include those of the World Federation of Engineering Organizations, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (US) and the Institution of Engineers (Australia). These may include references to fairness, accountability, environmental principles, public protection, and not allowing client interests to compromise community goals. (See ENGINEER, ENGINEERING) (MP)

ENHANCED-RADIATION WEAPON: See NEUTRON BOMB.

ENLIGHTENMENT: 1. an intellectual movement in Europe from the 16^th to the 18^th Centuries that believed in the power of human reason to understand the world and to guide human conduct 2. for Buddhists the state of enlightenment or 'nirvana' as the goal of human existence. (IP)

ENLIGHTENMENT THINKING: (See MULTIDISCIPLINARY, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, HOLISTIC)

ENOCH: See BOOK OF ENOCH.

ENSO: See EL NINO - SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP: Investment by health professionals or researchers in a profit-making business or enterprise related to their work. (See CONFLICT OF INTEREST) (DM)

ENTROPY: A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system. The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy of a closed system always increases over time. This means that energy is being transformed by the mechanics of the universe into uniformly-distributed heat energy. However, this is true only for large closed systems, and order can be maintained in an open system containing life. (See ENERGY) (MP)

ENVIRONMENT: The sum total of all that surrounds an organism, both biological environment and physio-chemical environment. (JA)

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPENSATION: Environmental compensation is a trade-off of beneficial environmental outcomes to compensate for the damage or adverse impacts of development, thus maintaining the aggregate natural ‘stock’. Desoals ng industries by establishing programs of tree-planting or trading of ‘carbon credits’. (See ENVIRONMENTAL SUBSTITUTION, CARBON CREDITS, BIOREMEDIATION, TREE-PLANTING, RESTORATION ECOLOGY) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENSE FUND: A commendable US coalition of environmental lawyers who forego lucrative careers to rely on public donations in the fight against destructive corporate practices and the support of environmental values in the legal system. (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: The ethical issues relating to environment. May take anthropocentric, biocentric or ecocentric approaches. Bioethics is a term including both environmental ethics and medical ethics issues. (See BIOETHICS, ENVIRONMENT) (DM)

ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS: Movements through compartments of the environment, a model or process. Environmental flows include abiotic solids (e.g. minerals, topsoil), biotic flows (e.g. harvest biomass), ecological flows (e.g. migration), genetic exchange (e.g. crop genetics), water (surface water, ocean currents), air (atmospheric gases), biogeochemical cycles (e.g. carbon, nitrogen cycles), product cycles (extraction, production, transport) and pollution (waste, heat, radioactive materials etc). (See MATERIAL FLOWS, ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES, ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS, LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENT: A gradual change in certain environmental conditions. Examples include geographical gradients of climate, soil or vegetation, or abundance/productivity gradients graphed against climate or soil type. Environmental gradients determine the optimal range and distribution of species with different requirements. (See STENOTYPIC SPECIES, EURYTYPIC SPECIES, GRADUALISM) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL HEATH: Describes circumstances that ensure that living organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms) are provided with the best chance to reach and maintain their full genetic potential. For example, it is well known that children exposed to harmful agents; such as lead or alcohol, during critical periods in their development, are deprived from reaching their full genetic potential. Obviously the maintenance of overall environmental health is a balancing act between conflicting needs; however, since humans are now 'in charge' of planetary health, we have an ethical duty to do or best in maintaining as fully as possible the genetic potential of all living things. (See WELLBEING; HEALTH; ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS). (SG2+IP)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT: An environmental impact may be adverse, beneficial or a combination of these, although use of the term often connotes a negative impact. It may be sudden (e.g. land clearing), gradual (e.g. water utilization) or have delayed action (e.g. climate change). Impacts may create secondary or flow-on impacts, and may add or multiply in combination with other impacts. It may be an environmental impact on humans (e.g. natural hazards) or a human impact on the environment (mining, dams, pollution etc). Usually refers to adverse impacts of human activities and developments on natural systems and ecology (e.g. environmental impact assessment), or also on the broader environment including human society (e.g. social impact assessment). Attempts have been made to estimate the total environmental impact of human activity on the Earth; for example,

a)   Total impact = PF  (Population x impact per capita)
b) Ecological impact = PCT (Population x Consumption/affluence x Technological efficiency)
c) Impact damage = population x economic intensity x resource intensity x environmental pressure on the resource  x  susceptibility of the environment
d)   Impact = PLOT  (Population x Lifestyle x Organization x Technology).

Risk evaluation and prevention of environmental impacts is essential to avoid further breakdown of the Earth’s ecosystem support processes, critical natural capital and quality of life. (See IMPACT, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPAMENT REPORT) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS): The final document prepared for the Environmental Impact Assessment, outlining the environmental consequences and recommended alternatives or mitigation measures. (See Environmental Impact Assessment) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION DIRECTORIES: The proliferation of data collected in recent decades has necessitated information networks and metadata directories to simplify the storage and distribution of environmental information. A few examples include online scientific journals and State of the Environment Reports, national Bureaus of Statistics, United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT), Sustainability Web Ring, Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), American Library Association Task Force on the Environment, Environmental Resources Information Network (Australia), National Directory of Australian Resources (National Resource Information Centre), World Resources Institute, World Meteorological Organization, Global Change Research Program (US Govt.) and Global Change Master Directory (NASA). (See BIOETHICS INFORMATION DIRECTORIES, MEDICAL INFORMATION DIRECTORIES) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTALISM: The movement concerned with slowing or reversing environmental degradation caused by human activities. (RW)

ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING: See ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, ENVIRON, IMPACT ASSESS.

ENVIRONMENTAL CODE OF CONDUCT: The integration of an ethical dimension into considerations affecting the environment. This may involve the formulation of new rights, responsibilities and obligations, such as rights of access to environmental information, consultation in environmental decision making, environmental impact assessment, and environmental policy-making which ensures a sustainable quality of life on Earth. (See ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT) (MP+IP)

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTING: See CORPORATE ACCOUNTABILITY, ENVIRON. IMPACT ASSESS.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: Environmental education is to teach the facts about the environment.  It can teach people our relationship to other parts of nature.  Environmental ethics education is more.  It is to teach how to incorporate the facts and values of different organisms into ethical decision-making.  Environmental ethics education teaches how we should live, whereas environmental education is linguistically descriptive, how we do live.  However, much of environmental education is actually also teaching some values.  But without teaching how to balance all interests, and facts and values, it can be propaganda. (DM)

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: Ethical issues associated with the environment. Can refer to both living and non-living parts of the environment. Part of Bioethics. (See BIOETHICS). (DM)

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT:  Cl; project like building a high rise dam/a fertilizer chemical plant, it provides useful information for helps decision. Components include: Project concept, pre-feasibility studies, fessibility, design and engineering, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Principles includevolving the appropriate experts and groups, linking of information obtained with decisions about the proposed projects, presentation of cleaound environmental management. And provision of information in a executive statement for the decision makers.Participants include the develotaff, competent and government authority, local community and politicians. Scope: 1. What will happen as a result of implementing the propos social changes Do the changes matter much? What can be done about them in terms of remedy? How can the decision-makers be informed of what completing the EIA study. (JA)

ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS: Physical, chemical, biological, social and economic characteristics of the environment which are monitored as indicators of broader environmental health and integrity. They provide comparisons with standard references, between regions, and of course across time. Environmental indicators create meaning, simplify data and streamline management by reducing the number of measures needed for exact representation of the environmental situation. They represent key states or processes within a well-developed interpretive framework such as Environmental Impact Assessment, Pressure/State/Response models and State of the Environment reporting. As examples, indicators of pressures may include vegetation clearance/fragmentation, indicators of environmental state may include distributions/abundances of species, and indicators of response might include the proportions of protected area by ecosystem type. Environmental indicators may include pre-existing managerial, commercial or census data. Implicit in the choice of a key set of indicators are simplifications, assumptions and value judgments. Care must be taken that they cover all fundamental issues and are appropriately scaled, broadly representative, robust, comparable, credible, and easily monitored. (See INDICATOR SPECIES, PRESSURE/STATE/RESPONSE MODEL, ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING: A process of repeated collection of data from a number of environmental indicators according to schedules across time and space. These are essential for awareness of environmental change and the impacts of policy and development. Choice of measurement parameters is determined by broader frameworks investigating different postulates and processes. Measurement is the authority of science, and neither adaptive management nor credible sustainable development can occur without monitoring. One criticism of the Environmental Impact Statement is its inability to illustrate change, without monitoring we only have static baseline observation. Regularly-used environmental indicators include water quality, species abundance and habitat distribution, but standardized data is also collected by remote sensing and collated by census and State of the Environment reporting. (See ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS, BASELINE MONITORING, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT, STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT, REMOTE SENSING) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES: Environmental processes are the functions, forces and dynamics which drive change in environmental systems. Although systems may be diverse and complex, fundamental processes acting upon them are more limited in number and therefore easier to model and manage. Examples of micro-scale environmental processes (with examples of broader application) include the following: chemical transformation and precipitation (e.g. pollution chemistry), biochemical transformation (e.g. metabolic pathways), ion exchange (cellular transfer), genetic exchange (modified crops/ecosystems), adsorption, absorption (biochemical oxygen demand), acid/base reactions (acid rain), sterilization (disinfection), filtration (water quality), coagulation, membrane separations, oxidization/reduction, volatilization (air quality), thermal transformations, phase transfer and mass transfer processes among other transport and transformation processes. The ‘environmental processes’ category is only one sS, ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS, PRESSURE/STATE/RESPONSE MODEL) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE ECONOMICS: Refers to economic management which goes beyond the conventional supply/demand relationships and monetary values by including other economic aspects of resource usage. Some of these additional aspects include pollution, general environmental degradation, effects on existing life-support systems, and other broadly-based environmentally connected economic concerns. Many aspects of resource utilization consist of intangibles such as culture, knowledge, beauty, ethical insights and general satisfaction with life. These intangibles need to be considered when allocating value to resource development. (IP)

ENVIRONMENTAL SUBSTITUTION: The exchange of one type of resource for another, the usual example being the transition from ecological resources to technological substitutes, usually not until the resource is damaged or depleted. A better proposition is substitution which replaces human economic capital with enhanced natural capital and a stronger environment. Strong sustainability does not allow environmental substitution, and even weak sustainability does not allow substitution of critical natural capital. (See STRONG SUSTAINABILITY, CONSTANT CAPITAL, CRITICAL NATURAL CAPITAL, ENVIRONMENTAL COMPENSATION) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: Sustainable Development with an emphasis on the integrative inclusion of the whole environment, (not over-emphasizing ecological or economic aspects). (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS: Environmental systems may be biological, ecological, chemical, physical, socio-economic or managerial. Systems may be natural (e.g. ecosystems), engineered (e.g. urban environment) or artificial (e.g. cyberspace). (See SYSTEM, ECOSYSTEM, ENVIRONMENTAL PROCESSES, ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS, PRESSURE/STATE/RESPONSE MODEL, SYSTEMS THEORY, COMPLEXITY THEORY) (MP)

ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION: (See ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS, INTRINSIC VALUE, USE VALUE)

ENZYME: A protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding the rate at which a biochemical reaction proceeds by not altering its direction or nature. Also some RNA can act as an enzyme, a ribozyme. Enzymes regulate chemical reactions in cell of an organisms - Most names of enzymes usually end with "ase" eg. Protease. Amylase Exceptions - like Trypsin. (DM, JA)

EPA: Environmental Protection Agency of the USA.

EPC: See EUROPEAN PATENT CONVENTION.

EPIDEMIOLOGY: The science of disease incidence and patterns of disease spread and distribution, including disease control and prevention. The study ("ology") of diseases or other phenomena over ("epi") a population ("demos"). The word derives from a book of that name by Hippocrates. Modern epidemiology makes .extensive use of advanced computerized statistical methods. Epidemiology is a powerful tool in evidence-based medicine. But there are always exceptions to every rule. Some few people are sedentary, heavy smokers, and eat all the worst foods, but live long, happy lives. So the value of epidemiology remains incomplete. But today researchers are beginning to pay detailed attention to genetic factors which may explain individual differences and exceptions to rules. This may help epidemiology to become an even more powerful tool.

Bioethical restrictions on study of patients' files and tissue samples, for reasons of privacy, hamper the progress of epidemiological research. While ethical restrictions on interventional and prospective research might be made stricter, more attention might be given to liberalizing restrictions on non-interventional, retrospective research, aided by computerized, anonymized, hospital and health ministry files, opening the way for epidemiology to serve public health even more beneficially. (See GENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY) (FL)

EPIGENETIC: Different factors can alter the phenotype without modifying the genotype. Imprinting is considered a form of epigenetic modification of the expression of a given genomic region, since the same DNA rearrangement can lead to different phenotypes, depending of the parental origin of the aberrant chromosome. Methylation of suppressor genes in some forms of tumors can also explain modified phenotypes, where no alteration of the genotype is observed. Sibs sharing a same mutated genotype in autosomal dominant or recessive diseases with complete penetrance, but showing a different phenotype, can also result from epigenetic factors acting on the genotype. (See also EPISTATIC). (GK)

EPINEPHRINE: see ADRENALINE.

EPISOME: A DNA molecule that may exist either as an integrated part of a chromosomal DNA molecule of the host or as an independently replicating DNA molecule (plasmid) free of the host chromosome. (DM)

EPISTATIC: Several genes can act on a genotype in modifying its phenotypic expression. This phenomenon has been described for mendelian disorders with complete penetrance, like Cystic Fibrosis, where the same mutated genotypes can have varying degrees of severity of the clinical symptoms. It is presumed that proteins encoded by other genes can modify the original impairment of the CFTR-encoded ion channel. In the case of this disease, epistatic and epigenetic factors, although not yet characterized, are important issues in genetic counseling. (GK)

EPISTEMIC: See EPISTEMOLOGICAL.

EPISTEMOLOGY: 1. (Greek: epistemo ‘knowledge’) The braf, certainty, doubt, opinion, explanation, interpretation, possibility, skepticism. Sources of knowledge may be sensations, reason, introspection or memory. Epistemology can be considered  a ‘theory of knowledge’ or ‘theory of cognition’. Is there an archiettier, Foucault and Pyrrho of Elis. (See KNOWLEDGE, META-KNOWLEDGE, ONTOLOGY) (MP)
2. Epistemology, or Theory of Knowledge, is the study of how we know, and to what extent we can be sure that our knowledge is true. So  epistemology is inseperable from the philosophy and methodology of  science.  And epistemology of bioethics would be a stu dy of how we can know whether our bioethical opinions are right or wrong.  Surely a survey of opinions would not answer the question, because the  opinions of a radical reformer might be right, but might be quite unpopular, at least at the beginning. Nor c an be say that we can find out what is bioethically true by looking at religious sources.  Although religious sources, like the Bible, might be the inspiration  for much deep bioethical thinking, such sources are notoriously unclear about details, and ope n to a variety of interpretations.  A good  example is the abortion debate within Judaism, where even among the orthodox there is a wide variety of opinions, ranging from the  extremely strict to the quite liberal.  Since the same sources are available bot h to the strict and to the liberal, we can be sure that the sources do not decide the issue. Utilitarianism (q.v.) was developed by Bentham and Mill as an attempt at an epistemology of ethics.  They thought that it would be possible  to sit down and calcul a te what act causes the greatest pleasure and  the least pain, and is therefore the most ethical.(see the discussion under UTILITARIANISM, ACT AND RULE, in this Dictionary.) Because of the difficulties of developing a scientific method in  ethics, emotivis t doctrines (see the discussion under EMOTIONS,  EMOTIVISM in this Dictionary) are quite popular.  The easiest way to solve the problem is simply to say that words like 'good" and "bad" are simply ways of expressing our feelings about things.  So moral sta t ements are neither true nor false, but simply a matter of taste. It is hard to accept this doctrine because it is obvious that statements like "Torturing children is bad" are obviously true. So the search for an epistemology of bioethics is still urgent. (FL)

EPISTEMOLOGICAL: Epistemological (or ‘epistemic’) is an adjective referring to something with relation to knowledge or belief e.g. an epistemological framework may comprise a certain cognitive stance, Weltanschauung (‘world-view’) or paradigm. (See EPISTEMOLOGY, KNOWLEDGE, WORLD VIEW, PARADIGM) (MP)

EPISTEMOLOGICAL UNCERTAINTY: See UNCERTAINTY.

EPO: See  EUROPEAN PATENT OFFICE/ORGANIZATION.   

EQ: See EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT and ENCEPHALIZATION QUOTIENT.

EQUAL PROTECTION: The constitutional or legal guarantee that no person shall be denied the same legal protection enjoyed by others in like circumstances. (DM)

EQUILIBRIUM: (See BALANCE) (MP)

EQUINOX: Two times in each year when the Sun is vertically overhead at the equator (21^st March and 22^nd September), and daylight and night are equally long. (See SOLSTICE) (IP)

EQUITY: Fairness or JUSTICE (q.v.). Precisely what constitutes fairness and justice is a large question in bioethics. (MR+GK)

ERGONOMICS: The relation of humans with machines, in particular the study of body posture in relation to engineering. Ergonomics includes features of chair design, tool design, positioning of dials, room layout and computer interface which correspond to healthy body form. For those at a machine, desk or computer for long hours, an ergonomic chair and workplace are essential for preventing stress, fatigue, neck strain, back injuries, deep-vein thrombosis, sprained muscles and repetitive strain injury (RSI). Good posture and movement, correct distance, stretching, work rotation and ergonomic furniture are all healthy aspects of the workplace. (See REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY) (MP)

ERIN: Environmental Resources Information Network (Australia).

EROS: the ancient Greek God of love and sex (known in the west as the winged cherub Cupid). It was believed that Eros participated at the very beginning of creation and from humankind’s  inception directed and regulated the life and happiness of all. Owing to his multi-faceted characteristics, which effectively recognized the combined elements of love’s  carnal somatic and psychic dimensions, this God was honored and exalted above any other. It was believed that the communication between the inner psychic and the prols the ideal way of existence in biological terms as it led to the genesis of spiritual goodness and a longing for immortality. (IP)

ERROR: (Latin errare 'to wonder'). In research the uncertainty in a measurement or estimate of a quantity. Uncertainty should be expressed when a temperature, for example, is readable only to the nearest degree Celsius - this temperature should then be documented as 20±0.5 °C meaning that the true value lies between 19.5 °C and 20.5 °C. Unpredictable random errors may occur in any direction and cannot be compensated for, however, systematic predictable errors that arise from faults/inaccuracies in instruments or changes in conditions can be corrected for. (See ESTIMATE). (IP)

ERYTHROPOIETIN OR EPO: is a naturally occurring hormone produced by the kidneys which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes or red blood cells. Synthetic EPO has gained disrepute because of its illegal use by athletes. The theory behind its popularity is that since red blood cells carry oxygen around the body, hormone-driven increases in cell numbers will also lead to increased oxygen availability and better body performance; for instance, an elite cyclist can travel anywhere between 70-75 km/h but with increased oxygen carrying capacity the rider can potentially reach that speed more quickly and hold it for longer periods. Until recently EPO abuse has been difficult to detect because the synthetic form could not be distinguished from the naturally occurring form. However, technology developed by Australian scientists can now identify biological markers which allow drug-testing authorities to identify the synthetic hormone up to four weeks after the last dose. EPO drug testing was first approved for use in the Sydney Olympic Games in October, 2000. (IP)

ESCHATOLOGY: (Greek: eskhatos 'last') 1. Theology: the branch of religious theory concerned with last things; in particular death, the 'end of the world', and our individual and collective ultimate fate in different religious philosophies. Some traditional 'after-death' circumstances such as divine judgement have been philosophized to occur also on Earth during the lifetime; this is 'realized eschatology'. (See LIFE AFTER DEATH) 2. Science: theoretical physics also contributes towards eschatology, with current cosmological models tending to favor the 'heat death' of the universe over the 'big crunch', depending upon the mass of the mysterious 'dark matter' of the universe. (See BIG CRUNCH, HEAT DEATH, OMEGA POINT THEORY) 3. Strategy and management: the study of logical endpoints and the projection of processes or philosophical models to their ultimate inferred conclusion. Eschatological analysis illuminates the long-term, identifying philosophical directions for problem-solving and decision-making. This can also expose certain ironies inherent in common assumptions about human behavior - for instance, the eschatology of capitalism without regulation or ethical restraint seems to be a final person/company/country with all the fluid capital and an almost total majority with nothing or next-to-nothing. (See VISION, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT) (MP)

ESD: See ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.

ESOTERIC: Typically used to mean 'rarefied and so of little relevance' but originally used with reference to philosophical debates to mean 'meant only for the initiated'. In this sense, an esoteric argument could be difficult to understand but have major consequences. (MR)

ESP: See EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION.

ESPERANTO: An artificial language designed as a global lingua franca, Esperanto was first published in 1887 by the name 'Lingvo Internacia' by Ludwig Zamenhof under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto ('Doctor Hopeful'). Esperanto is based on the European lexicon with Slavonic influences, and has various dedicated international journals, conferences and associations despite limited official status. (See ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES, LINGUA FRANCA) (MP)

EST: See EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAG.

ESTIMATE: A rough calculation made to provide a preliminary answer to a problem indicating what the response may be if a variable is changed. (See ERROR). (IP)

ESTUARY: Semi-enclosed coastal waters at the junctions of rivers with ocean habitats, for example littoral basins, bays, inlets and harbours. Estuaries have a high biological productivity due to nutrient delivery and mixing processes. The salinity gradient between the fresh and salt water typically takes the form of a heavier saline wedge, mixed by flood and tidal flows. Major communities in the estuarine habitat may include juvenile fish, benthos, seagrass, mangrove, saltmarsh and wetland ecosystems. Estuaries are essential breeding grounds for many fish species and must be protected from habitat-damaging fishing practices such as trawling. Activities upstream can adversely impact the estuarine environment, for example agricultural runoff which may cause sedimentation and eutrophication. (See COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT, LITTORAL, EUTROPHICATION, BENTHOS, MANGROVE FOREST, SEAGRASS) (MP)

ETHANOL: see ETHYL ALCOHOL.

ETHICAL ANALYSIS: The application of ethical theory to specific moral problems. (DM)

ETHICAL CODES: See CODES OF ETHICS.

ETHICAL INVESTMENT: Financial involvement in ethical companies and sustainable practices which cause no depletion of natural assets or environmental degradation, have no involvement in weapons, uranium, gambling, tobacco or alcohol, and do not infringe the rights of workers, women, indigenous people, children or animals. Many may not agree with or be aware of the ways banks and superannuation funds use community savings to fund corporations with non-sustainable practices. The claim that the market is essentially "amoral" can be countered when knowledge is made explicit of the effects of specific capital flows on the future environment and community. Credit unions, "friendly" societies and local community banks are more consciously managed in the interests of members. Sets of company principles, commercial transparency and consumer watchdogs all facilitate ethical investment. Ethical companies may be involved in alternative energies and sustainable development, or in the creative and information industries where money can be generated without the involvement of natural resources. Appropriate share portfolios can be developed using indexes such as the Domini Social Index (DSI) of US ethical investments, or managed through ethical investment funds like the Australian Ethical Investment Trust. The DSI and other ethical options can outperform the S&P 500 market index. The ethical and environmental sector has the potential to be a boom market as corporations are forced to address their responsibilities towards the planet. Shares in small, well-placed start-up companies dealing with environmental and information technologies generate risky but high returns. Marketing and promotion of ethical or environmental principles can increase consumer interest in a company. Visionary companies motivate with the use of well-defined goals, and sustainable corporations innovate with adaptable working conditions. In the realm of biotechnology companies, the ethics of an investment portfolio may be a matter of opinion. (See SUSTAINABLE CORPORATION, VISIONARY COMPANY, ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS) (MP)

ETHICAL REGULATIONS:

ETHICAL RELATIVISM: The view that ethical principles vary, or ought to vary, among different groups or cultures. (See CULTURAL PLURALISM) (DM)

ETHICAL REVIEW: Committee review of patient care or research proposals for conformity with ethical guidelines. (See ANIMAL CARE COMMITTEES, ETHICS COMMITTEES) (DM)

ETHICAL THEORY: See ETHICS.

ETHICIST, CLINICAL: A hospital, sick fund, or health management organization employee who participates in ethical decision making in clinical medicine. The employer-employee relationship requires care about potential conflict of interest. Clinical ethicists may be involved only in standard bio-medical issues like DNR (q.v.), truth-telling, coercive treatment, etc., or might be called in to consult on questions of medical negligence, malpractice and the like. In some places, patients and their families are charged for ethics consultations. If the consultation is about withdrawing care from a terminal patient, the family may find themselves in a situation where the patient will not be allowed to die unless an ethicist's fee is paid.

It can be debated whether hospital ethicists are necessary or whether it would be better to encourage physicians and nurses to study ethics deeply and to take more direct responsibility for their decisions. If it is acknowledged that physicians are in the need of someone to observe and criticize their ethics, it can be debated whether the idea of the clinical ethicist is really the best solution, or whether nurses -- who are aware of everything going on in the wards anyway -- should be encouraged to speak out more, and to take more part in clinical ethical decision making. It can also be debated whether those who are learned in bio-medical ethics can make the best contribution by becoming clinical ethicists or whether they might contribute more as educators in medical and nursing schools, teaching physicians and nurses to understand ethical issues more deeply. (FL)

ETHICS: A system of moral principles or standards governing conduct. 1. a system of principles by which human actions and proposals may be judged good or bad, right or wrong; 2. A set of rules or a standard governing the conduct of a particular class of human action or profession; 3. Any set of moral principles or values recognized by a particular religion, belief or philosophy; 4. The principles of right conduct of an individual. Ethical behavior requires the ability to reason, to understand the consequences and to make choices about one’s  actions. As modern society changes and advances are made in technology, the prevailing ethical standards need to also evolve to incory) [Latin ethicus or Greek ethikos pertaining to "ethos" or character].
Traditional ethics was divided into Substantive ethics or meta ethics. Substantive ethics deals with "what are the rules?" and includes the utilitarian and Kantianism concepts, often both agree on practical applications. In Kantianism actions must subscribe other people as "ends in themselves" and not as means to the ends of others or for self-gratification. In utilitarianism actions on the basis of their anticipated consequences (good actions maximize happiness or minimize unhappiness). (DM, IP, JA)

ETHICS COMMITTEE: Committees established by groups such as professional organizations to consider ethical issues. (See INSTITUTIONAL ETHICS COMMITTEE) (DM+FL)

ETHICS-OF-CARE: a more encompassing theory of bioethics incorporating the group-point of view; that is, an emotional commitment to, and willingness to act on behalf of persons with whom one has a significant relationship (see ETHICS-OF-RIGHTS) (IP)

ETHICS-OF-RIGHTS: is a theory of bioethics which emphasizes the self-awareness point of view; that is, empowered by being informed or care through self-awareness (see ETHICS-OF-CARE) (IP)

ETHNIC CLEANSING: The mass expulsion or extermination of people from a minority ethnic or religious group within a certain area and who, in many instances, had lived in harmony for generations prior to the outbreak of national hostilities. Well publicized examples include ethnic atrocities experienced in the former Yugoslavia where the full extent of carnage committed, particularly between Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims, may never be revealed. War violates fundamental human decency but it is at its worst when actions are taken against the civilian population who then is subjected to atrocities such as rape, assassinations, massacres, torture and ethnic cleansing. (See GENOCIDE; EXTERMINATION; EUGENICS; CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY; INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW; INSTITUTION OF WAR; BIOLOGICAL WARFARE; POST TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER) (IP)

ETHNOCENTRISM: the belief that one’s  ethnic group has a mode of living, values, and patterns of adaptation that are superior to all others. It is coupled with a generalized contempt for members of other ethnic groups [Greek ethnos = nation]. (IP)

ETHOLOGY: The science of behavior, behavioral patterns of individuals and communities. (JA)

ETHNOGRAPHY: A part of anthropology to study racial characteristics and intra and inter cultural differences in their social, cultural and religious behavior. (JA)

ETHYL ALCOHOL: has the chemical formula C ₂ H ₅ OH and is the final product of fermentation of sugar by yeasts. (See ALCOHOL) (IP)

ETHYLENE: Plant hormone involved in fruit ripening, gaseous at room temperature, capable of dispersal in environment. (JA)

ETHYLENE OXIDE: A disinfectant and an intermediate product in the production of various chemicals. Human exposure to ethylene oxide affects fertility. Its effect is classified as a substance “which should be regarded as if they impair fertility in humans.” (JA)

ETYMOLOGY: Study of the history and evolution of words and language. (See LEXICOGRAPHY, LINGUISTICS, SEMIOTICS, CULTURAL EVOLUTION, MEME) (MP)

EUBIOS: Word coined in 1990 from the Greek Eu=good; Bios=life, to mean "good life". (DM)

EUBIOS ETHICS INSTITUTE: Institute founded in 1990 by Darryl Macer, in Christchurch New Zealand and in Tsukuba Science City in Japan. To review and update news and trends in bioethics from around the world, publishing books, journal and acting as a vehicle for interchange of opinions. Bioethics is broadly defined as life ethics, including both medical and environmental ethics, and environmental, ethical, legal and social issues arising from biotechnology. The organization is not for profit.Establishing networks of bioethics researchers, holding conferences and promoting bioethics education. The journal, Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics (EJAIB), is the official journal of the Asian Bioethics Association (ABA) and the IUBS Bioethics Program. The aim of the journal and books is to publish research papers, and relevant news, and letters, on topics within Asian Bioethics, promoting research in bioethics in the Asian region, and contributing to the interchange of ideas within and between Asia and global international bioethics. Asia is defined for the general purposes of this journal as the geographical area, including the Far East, China, South East Asia, Oceania, the Indian subcontinent, the Islamic world and Israel. More information on www site. (DM)

EUCALYPTUS: (from Greek: eu "well"+ kalyptus "covered", referring to the flower bud operculum). The eucalypts or "gum-trees" are a large genus of over 700 species of trees and shrubs endemic to Australia, making up the vast majority of forest habitat in that country. In addition to Eucalyptus, a new genus of eucalypts is now recognized: Corymbia, which includes the bloodwoods and ghost gums. Eucalypts are commonly cultivated worldwide, and provide valuable hardwood timber as well as eucalyptus oil used as a germicide and expectorant. (See SCLEROPHYLL FOREST) (MP)

EUCARYOTE: Cell or organism with membrane-bound, structurally discrete nucleus and other well-developed subcellular compartments. Eucaryotes include all organisms except viruses, bacteria and blue-green algae. Compare procaryote. (DM)

EUGENICS: Attempts to improve hereditary qualities through selective breeding. See positive eugenics, negative eugenics, eugenics of normalcy . Eugenics is defined " as any effort to interfere with individuals" procreative choices in order to attain a societal goal ". Word means " good breeding " from the Greek names Eugene and Eugenia expressing the notion of "well born" which was a celebration of parent’s  belief that their offspring are especially blessed. The term was coined by Sir Francis Galton, an English scidea has been abused in the past; for example, by the Nazis in the 1930s and early 1940s, and some countries havern eugenics is based on eliminating genetic disorders. (See ETHNIC CLEANSING) (DM+IP)

EUGENICS OF NORMALCY: Policies and programs intended to ensure that each individual has at least a minimum number of normal genes. (IP)

EUPHEMISM: (Greek: euphemismos "good speech") Terminology or language which puts a favorable connotation on a sensitive word. Early euphemisms probably arose as discreet references to revered deities. The use of euphemism for political, medical and sexual concepts flowered in the decorous and dignified language of Renaissance and Victorian aristocracy. These courtly circumlocutions were described as "euphuism" by John Lyly in his 1578 satire Euphues . Euphemisms may be created by widening concepts, semantic shifts, metaphor or phonetic distortion. Euphemism provides the useful bioethical function of avoiding offense and reducing unpleasant psychological associations from fearful or grievous situations such as death. However, euphemisms are also employed in deceit and propaganda to obscure embarrassing concepts and practices in politics (e.g. people’s  dem, freedom fighter, peace enforcement, pre-emptive strike and preventive war). (See METAPHOR, AMBIGUITY, COLLATERAL DAMAGE, FRIENDLY FIRE) (MP)

EUROPEAN PATENT CONVENTION: Under the European Patent Convention of 1978 the EPO was established as an international patent-granting authority. (JA)

EUROPEAN PATENT OFFICE: A governing body for granting Patents on novel inventions.  It examines a patent application whether it meets the patent criteria for patenting.  The fee levied for a patent is used to run the EPO   Patents granted can be challenged in a court of law by a third party by submitting an  “opposition” to the EPs, these members are the EPC contracting states.  (JA)

EURYTYPIC SPECIES: A species which has a large tolerance to environmental change, typically with a wide geographical distribution. (See STENOTYPIC SPECIES, ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENT) (MP)

EUSTRESS: Happy stress from the Greek eu meaning happy or well. In biology stress is essentially reflected in the total rate of all the wear and tear caused by life and, although it is impossible to avoid stress, a lot can be learnt about how to keep its damaging side effects to a minimum. Stress is personal - envigorating for some, devastating for others; thus, the stress experienced depends not so much on what we do or what happens but on the way we take it. Characteristics such as self-confidence, reliance, trust, esteem and a flexible motivation springing from an inner strength all lower distress and heighten eustress. Additionally, eustress increases productivity and learning, whereas prolonged distress has the opposite effect. (See DISTRESS; STRESS; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME). (IP)  

EUTHANASIA: The merciful hastening of death, often limited to willful and merciful actions to kill of one who is injured or terminally ill. ( in Greek " an easy death ").(See DOCTOR-ASSISTED SUICIDE) (DM)

EUTHERIAN MAMMAL: See MARSUPIALS, MONOTREMES.

EUTROPHICATION: (Greek eu well + trephein to flourish). The addition of nutrient material, mostly from domestic sewage, some industrial wastes and the leaching of fertilizers from agricultural lands, into rivers and lakes with the subsequent flourishing of algae and microorganisms. This results in the depletion of dissolved oxygen and the potential suffocation of other aquatic organisms (see ALGAL BLOOMS). (MP & IP)

EVALUATE: 1. to assess, appraise value 2. to find numerical expression - give a measurement of the worth of something in the units deemed appropriate [French evaluer value] (IP)

EVALUATION STUDIES: Indicates that the document describes a study that uses the methods of the social sciences or statistics to analyze either the impact or effectiveness of practice or policy decisions, or the values used in making such decisions. (DM)

EVANGELIUM VITAE: Encyclical Letter of Pope John Paul II on the value and inviolability of human life, issued March 25, 1995. The Encyclical is the reference document on Bioethics for Catholics. It deals specifically with abortion and euthanasia, but also with all issues related to the "Culture of Life": family, feminism, population growth, birth control, self-defence, death penalty, the meaning of suffering. (PC)

EVENT HORIZON: The event horizon, or 'Schwarzchild radius', refers to the gravitational 'point of no return' surrounding a black hole. Beyond this point matter and light are captured by the black hole, preventing the possibility of any return or communication back across the event horizon. (See BLACK HOLE, IRREVERSIBLE DAMAGE) (MP)

EVIDENCE: Expert knowledge, information or data which supports an assertion or hypothesis. (See EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT, VALIDATION, EMPIRICAL) (MP)

EVIDENCE-BASED MANAGEMENT: The use of existing data and on-going monitoring of indicators to determine the most appropriate management strategies. In practice this may mean that environmental management should have stronger links to scientific recommendations than to political whims. If the best available information is inadequate, the precautionary principle should be considered and action should not be taken/delayed while waiting for better evidence. (See ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, BEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION, BEST CURRENT PRACTICE, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE, ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS) (MP)

EVIL: The ancient religion of Manichaeism taught that the world derives from two principles, the Principle of Good and the Principle of Evil, which are always in conflict with one another.  Christianity, holding that God is entirely good, and has created everything, had to deny the real existence of evil, and to reject Manichaeism as a heresy.  Christian philosophers attempted to explain the apparent existence of evil in the world by saying that evil does not really exist, but is only the privation , or lack of good. A lie, therefore, is only a falling-short of honesty.  Meanness is only a falling-short of generosity.  Cowardice is only a falling-short of courage.  And gluttony is only a falling-short of self control.  This doctrine has much to recommend it in terms of its value in encouraging a charitable attitude towards others.  Rather than harping upon the faults of others, let's not look at their lacks, but at their positive qualities.

This doctrine, however, seems to be at its best when it is a question of the rather minor faults and errors of our friends and neighbors, and of ourselves: where it is good advice to overlook the sins and focus on the virtues.  But what about a terrorist leader, who plays on the religious faith of some poor fool, indoctrinates him with venom, dopes him up, and with metaphysical promises gets him to go blow himself up in a bus full of simple working people and schoolchildren?  Should we ignore the evil of this act and focus instead charitably upon the virtues of the terrorist leader, such as that he pays his debts in time and brings his wife flowers regularly?  

Unlike Manichaeism, Judaism does not recognize evil as a principle equal in power to good.  But unlike Christianity, Judaism does not deny the real existence of evil.  Nor does Judaism have any article of faith according to which God is all perfect and incapable of doing evil. Indeed when God threatened to kill all of Sedom, Avraham found this ethically abhorrent and argued: "Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right?" (Genesis XVIII, 25) Judaism believes that God creates both good and evil, and commands us to bless God for both.  We do not, however, know God's reasons for anything, including God's reasons for creating evil.  We can guess that God perhaps creates evil in order to put us through experiences which will help strengthen and improve our souls, an idea which fits in well with the doctrine of reincarnation.  But this is only a guess.  God's real reasons  for doing anything (if God indeed has reasons in any sense of the word "reason" which we can understand) are mysteries which are for God, and not for us, to know. (FL)

EVOLUTION: 1. Any series of gradual or punctuated changes through time. 2. In biology, the continuous genetic adaptation of species to environmental change by the agencies of natural selection, hybridization, inbreeding and mutation. The theory of evolution by natural selection was first popularized by British naturalist Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species (1859) and has since been supported by scientific research such as breeding experiments. (See FOSSIL RECORD; GAIA HYPOTHESIS, NATURAL SELECTION, ORIGIN OF LIFE, PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM, SPECIATION) (MP & IP)

EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHM: See GENETIC ALGORITHM.

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY: applies evolutionary reasoning to psychological phenomena and embraces three key guided by specialized cerebral mechanisms performing specific shaped these modular cognitive mechanisms to produce adaptive these modular products of our evolutionary history are designed to produce very specific adaptive outcomes (for example, male preference for mates who are youthful, healthy and beautiful) (see GAIA HYPOTHESIS, HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY and DUAL INHERITANCE THEORY). (IP)

EXECUTIVE INFORMATION SYSTEM: See EXPERT SYSTEM.

EXERGY: An uncommonly used term, exergy is the measure of work that can be extracted from a system. A low entropy system such as the biosphere may have a high level of exergy. (See ENERGY, ENTROPY, WORK) (MP)

EXISTENCE VALUE: Allocation of value to ecosystems and the natural environment as a reflection of human desire for their continued existence - despite no expectation of actual contact or use of the resource. Although less selfish than values derived from direct use, existence value is still slightly anthropocentric in that it reflects human sympathy and preferences rather than any naturally inherent intrinsic value. (See INTRINSIC VALUE OF NATURE, INSTRUMENTAL VALUE OF NATURE, BEQUEST VALUE, OPTION VALUE, ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION) (MP)

EXOBIOLOGY: A branch of biology that studies the occurrence of extra terrestrial life in other planets outside of our biosphere and beyond. (See ASTROBIOLOGY) (JA)

EXONS: The protein-coding DNA sequences of a gene. Compare introns . (DM)

EXOTIC: Describing a species not originating in the place where it is found; a nonnative, introduced species. (See INTRODUCED SPECIES)

EXOSPHERE: refers to the outermost portion of the atmosphere beginning at a height of about 500 km (see BIOSPHERE, CRYOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE & OZONE HOLE). (IP)

EXOTOXIN: A poison excreted by some gram-negative or gram-positive organisms. It is composed of protein. (DM)

EXPERIMENT: (Latin experimentum 'see') a trial, special test or observation made to confirm or refute something in doubt or for testing a hypothesis. (IP)

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS: The treatment groups, or subjects which received measured exposure to a certain variable (e.g. medication), as opposed to the control groups (e.g. placebo) which are the same in all respects except for the treatment variable under examination. (See CONTROL GROUPS, DOUBLE BLIND EXPERIMENT) (MP)

EXPERT: (Latin: expertus "known by experience") Experts possess detailed current knowledge and an ability to process complex information. Their expertise may derive from proficiency in specialised skills, depth or range of knowledge, or decisive wisdom in judgement. Critics maintain that expertise from a single professional field poorly equips the specialist for problems in a broad, interconnected and complex world. Narrower specialised knowledge should be supplemented by higher order knowledge of the context, for example interrelated concepts, spatiotemporal relationships and processes of change. Experts have a privileged position of community trust as sources of knowledge, and this implies professional ethical responsibility in the gathering, distribution and use of this knowledge for decision making. (See EXPERTISE, EXPERT SYSTEM) (MP)

EXPERT SYSTEM: Expert systems and decision support systems are software which mimic the inductive or deductive reasoning of a human expert. Complex problems such as diagnosis, prediction, interpretation, planning and design are modelled and solved using inferences from facts and rules derived from expert knowledge. Expert systems may be defined by their task specialization and performance, problem solving ability in a given domain, ability to reformulate a problem, efficiency, complexity or symbol manipulation. Such software is the practical application of artificial intelligence research. Expert systems for management advisory and executive decision support have been deployed in industries such as medical diagnosis, mineral prospecting, military planning, engineering and finance. (See ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, EXPERT, EXPERTISE) (MP)

EXPERT SYSTEM SHELL: Software containing the basic non-specialized components of an expert system such as the inference mechanisms and user interface, but not including the specialized knowledge base. The addition of expert knowledge to this shell creates a new expert system specialized for a specific domain. (See EXPERT SYSTEM) (MP)

EXPERT TESTIMONY: The presentation of pertinent information by a qualified specialist before a court or governmental body. (DM)

EXPERTISE: Expertise is usually defined by scope of detailed current knowledge and range of experience within a professional field or fields. It may also be expressed as proficient ability with a skilled task and familiarity with its performance. Other characteristics commonly regarded as comprising expertise include a combination of the following: high level attention, perception, concentration, cognitive processing and analytical intelligence, knowledge of context and complexity, understanding of fundamental patterns and processes, ability to understand abstract concepts, intellectual confidence in decision making, creative ability with ideas and concepts, selectivity regarding the relevance of information, adaptability to change, strong co-operation and communication skills, credibility of reputation, and a strong sense of professional ethical responsibility for choices made. (See EXPERT, EXPERT SYSTEM) (MP)

EXPONENTIAL: Something grows exponentially, i.e. geometrically, if it increases (or decreases) by a constant factor with each unit of time. For example, the value of money decreases exponentially with time if the inflation rate remains constant. For much of human history, world population size has been increasing exponentially or even at a great than exponential rate. This cannot continue for many more decades. (MR)

EXPLOITATION: 1. Taking unjust advantage of another or utilize a person for ones own profit or benefit 2. utilization by application of industry, argument or other means, as the taking advantage of a mine or an old-growth forest. (IP)

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH: Initial broad investigations, such as baseline monitoring or pilot studies to determine the nature of the subject and priority problems for research. (See PILOT STUDY, RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

EXPLOSIVES: Substances such as gunpowder, cordite, nitroglycerine and TNT which decay rapidly under certain conditions, causing sudden violent expansion with a shock-wave of kinetic energy, sound, light and heat. Explosives are the basis for most modern weapon and rocket systems, from the handgun to the nuclear bomb. The primary purpose of explosives in warfare is the destruction of people and infrastructure. The purpose, precision and effectiveness of this task are obviously matters of bioethical concern. Factors influencing the consequences of the use of explosives include type of weapon, impact precision, burst specifics, explosive yield, lethal radius, ground characteristics and target density. (See EXPLOSIVE YIELD, TNT, BALLISTICS, MISSILES, LAND MINES, NUCLEAR WEAPONS) (MP)

EXPLOSIVE YIELD: The strength of explosive energy contained within a bomb or nuclear warhead, expressed as the equivalent tonnage of TNT required to produce the same explosion (one ton of TNT releases about 106 calories of energy). For example the 20 kiloton atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki had an explosive yield equivalent to 20,000 tons of TNT. Other nuclear weapons have been tested with explosive yields up to 70 megatons. (See EXPLOSIVES, TNT, NUCLEAR WEAPONS) (MP)

EXPRESSED SEQUENCE TAG: A segment of DNA corresponding (can be used as a tag) to turned on genes in a particular tissue/organism. (JA)

EXTENT OF OCCURRENCE: See POPULATION DISTRIBUTION.

EXTERMINATION: 1. The complete destruction of a population or community of living organisms, for example pests or vermin. (See EXTINCTION) 2. Intentional infliction of insufferable conditions for life (e.g. prevention of access to water, food, medicine or safety) with the intent of destroying some segment of a population. (See GENOCIDE, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY, ETHNIC CLEANSING) (MP)

EXTERNALITIES: Variables affecting human welfare which are impacted by economic processes, but not calculated or recompensated in economic terms.  The generators of externalities and those benefited/impacted would be taxed or subsidized accordingly in a broadly sustainable system. Various categories of externalities include pareto-relevant, pecuniary, technological, private/public goods, socio-cultural amenities, pollution and natural resource values. In the interests of ‘economic efficiency’ corporations/governments often don’t factor in these external costs, to the detriment of society and the environment. (See OPPORTUNITY COST, EFFICIENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS) (MP)

EXTINCT: No longer existing in living form as a species, having died out as a result of the normal dynamic of evolution or commonly also due to human disturbances such as habitat destruction. Current programs to store and perhaps restore frozen DNA of extinct species are commendable only if they take no pressure off efforts at conservation of the living organisms; after all we aren"t able to recreate the most significant units of nature, complex ecosystems. (See EXTINCTION, ENDANGERED SPECIES) (MP)

EXTINCT IN THE WILD: A taxon which has not been recorded in expected habitat over an appropriate time frame throughout its past range. Such species may survive only in captivity, cultivation or as a naturalised population away from its original wild habitat. (See ENDANGERED SPECIES, GHOST SPECIES, EXTINCTION) (MP)

EXTINCTION: Extinction is the termination or extinguishing from the Earth of an evolutionary lineage such that they no longer exist in living form. Anything which ceases to exist can also be said to undergo extinction, such as outmoded technology, information, beliefs or behaviours. In psychology and physiology, extinction is a decline in a learned or stimulus response in the absence of reinforcement. Extinction however most often refers to the loss of a group of organisms, usually a species but ranging from a local population to a phylum. We are currently experiencing a human-driven mass extinction, and extrapolations from current trends predict the rapid extinction of approximately half of the species on Earth. This mass extinction is the result of rapidly expanding human populations and our excessive focus on economic growth, with the associated development, pollution, hunting, pest introductions, land degradation, habitat destruction and ecosystem fragmentation. This massive loss of life will have serious global repercussions for the future of natural biodiversity, ecosystem processes, habitat stability and other essential ecological functions. Even from a purely anthropocentric point of view which ignores the intrinsic value of nature, this mass extinction is resulting in rapid loss of information and ideas, new patterns and processes, chemical and food products, and other economic, aesthetic and spiritual opportunity costs. Perhaps the greatest danger from this extinction of biodiversity is the risk of undermining the stability and homeostasis of the Earth’s  self-sustaining feedback mechanisms, possibly resulting in a world uninhabitable to humans. (See EXTINCT, MASS EXTINCTION, HUMAN EXTINCTION). (MP)

EXTRACHROMOSOMAL DNA: DNA not associated with the chromosome(s), for example, plasmid DNA or organelle (mitochondria or chloroplast) DNA).

EXTRAORDINARY TREATMENT: Therapeutic measures which cannot be obtained without excessive expense, pain, or other burden, or which, if used, would not offer a reasonable hope of benefit. (See FUTILITY). (DM)

EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP): The alleged ability to perceive or receive information from beyond the natural range of the five senses. ESP takes various forms, including alleged awareness over a distance of events (clairvoyance), thoughts (telepathy) or feelings (telesthesia), sometimes ahead of time (precognition). Biotechnology such as cybernetic connections between neurons and microprocessors in combination with wireless internet technology or virtual reality may in the future potentially allow the simulation of some of these forms of ESP involving distance. (See CLAIRVOYANCE, PRECOGNITION, PSYCHOKINESIS, TELEPATHY, TELESTHESIA) (MP)

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