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BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "H"s
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HABITAT:
The environment or ecological space in which a plant or animal naturally
lives and grows, for example the tropical rainforest, beach-front
or coral reef habitats. May be described as the organic and inorganic
sum total of the environment which can have an influence on, or
be experienced by a species. Although often described as discrete
ecological groups or geographical distributions, habitat boundaries
typically merge and overlap. It is increasingly realized that good
environmental and economic management must primarily focus on the
habitat level in order to successfully manage the sustainability
of smaller units such as biodiversity. (See BIODIVERSITY, ECOLOGY,
ECOSYSTEM, HABITAT DEGRADATION, HABITAT DESTRUCTION) (MP)
HABITAT BUFFERS: See
BUFFER ZONES.
HABITAT
CONSERVATION: Habitat-level is an appropriate system level for
environmental scientists and policy-makers to work at, because ecological
systems and endangered species are subsystems also preserved by
habitat conservation. Habitat conservation should place high priority
on the habitats most vulnerable to extinction (e.g. the ‘ecological
hotspots’), the few remaininining habitat specinservation should
aabitat corridors, bulture, biological HABITAT TYPES, HAB (MP)
HABITAT CORRIDORS: The
impacts of habitat fragmentation can be somewhat alleviated by the
provision of habitat corridors: wide connecting areas of appropriate
habitat to link existing ecosystems and allow connectivity, biophysical
regeneration, migration, genetic exchange, foraging routes, ecosystem
services and biodiversity conservation. A corridor implies free
movement, ranging from wildlife tunnels under large roads to large-scale
links between National Parks. Habitat corridors also provide aesthetic
values and hazard protection to intervening suburban landscapes.
(See WILDLIFE CORRIDORS, HABITAT FRAGMENTATION, RESTORATION ECOLOGY)
(MP)
HABITAT DEGRADATION: Habitat
degradation is the gradual erosion of environmental integrity, quality,
biodiversity and aesthetics, leading ecosystems into a state of
fragmentation and several steps closer to destruction. Usually a
result of human activity, habitat degradation includes industrial
pollution, climate change, forestry and mining operations, dams,
desertification, salinization, loss of land fertility, erosion,
edge effects, ecological effects of pesticides, water diversion,
river turbidity, eutrophication, trawling, coral bleaching, introduction
of diseases, exotic predators, invasive weeds or vulnerable genetic
stock etc. New generations may not bear witness to the true beauty
and bounty of surroundings they inherit, and adjust to a lower standard
of environmental quality and diversity. (See HABITAT DESTRUCTION,
HABITAT FRAGMENTATION, ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY) (MP)
HABITAT DESTRUCTION: Widespread
forms of habitat destruction, which lead to fragmentation of what
remains, include deforestation, land clearing, slash and burn cultivation,
cattle ranching, large-scale agriculture, large-scale mining, the
effects of large dams, industrial warfare, industrial and suburban
encroachment, urban sprawl and the ecological footprint of cities
etc. Of human activities, agriculture and grazing occupy the most
land-surface area, with corresponding opportunity cost for natural
ecosystems. Habitat destruction is obviously one of the priority
issues in environmental ethics, requiring political and community
activism and economic restructuring. (See HABITAT DEGRADATION, GREEN
POLITICS) (MP)
HABITAT FRAGMENTATION: The
creation of unconnected biogeographic ‘islands’ of habd suburectly
fand sustainable policy. (See ECOSYSTEM FRAGMENTATION, HABITAT CORRIDORS,
EDGE EFFECTS, BUFFER ZONES) (MP)
HABITAT ISLAND: A
section of habitat isolated from other areas of the same habitat
by the surrounding environment - for example a forest glade or a
habitat fragment within an agricultural or suburban landscape. (See
HABITAT FRAGMENTATION) (MP)
HABITAT PARTITIONING: The differentiation of microhabitats and ecological niches between
closely related organisms. (See NICHE DIFFERENTIATION) (MP)
HABITAT
RESTORATION: See RESTORATION ECOLOGY.
HABITAT
TYPES: Major terrestrial global habitats include polar, arctic
tundra, boreal/coniferous forest, deciduous forest, sclerophyll
forest, temperate rainforest, tropical rainforest, mangrove, montane,
island, savannah and desert. Marine habitats include the deep ocean,
‘blue-water’, coral reagricultur are also habitats), by space (e.g.
continuous, patchy or isolated habitats), by demographic effect
(e.g. size-beneficial habitats), by R.H. MacArthur and E.O. Wilson’s
classic r/K concept (r = selection for rapid reproduction; K = delayed
reproduction), by J.P. Grime’s classification (according to disturbance
strategy), by ecological succession (e.g. seres, climax co are the
appropriate scaled units of study for effective ecology, environmental
science and managemenECIDUOUS FOREST, CONIFEROUS FOREST, MANGROVE
FOREST, MONTANE, TAIGA, TUNDRA, SAVANNAH, LITTORAL, CORAL REEF)
(MP)
HACKER: A hacker uses extraordinary
knowledge of the internet to break security limitations and explore,
sometimes even change, the information stored on computer systems.
A ‘cracker’ is a criminal hacker, who may commit credit fraud, steal
identities and release viruses or worms. To ‘phreak’ is to illegally
access telephone systems and other lines of communication. To ‘crack’
software is to bypass security codes which prevent piracy by non-paying
users. The ‘hacktivist’ works for a social or ideological cause.
(See HACKTIVIST, CYBER CRIME, COMPUTER VIRUS, WORM) (MP)
HACKTIVISM: Hacking for a social or ideological cause, hacktivism utilizes the
power of the internet to uncover dirty information about corporations,
‘enhance’ their MPUTER VIRUS, ECO-TERRORISM) (MP)
HADITH:
(from the Arabic root H.d.th., meaning "to report, to relate")
Collections of traditions relating to Muhammad and his companions.
These traditions carry considerable weight in terms of Islamic customs.
Various Hadith collections exist, and each is listed according to
the name of its compiler. The chain of transmission of traditions
carries great weight in Hadith collections, and each Hadith tradition
is quoted preceded by the chain of narrators who transmitted it
from teacher to student. As a result, the most important Hadith
collections are the ones with the clearest and most reliable chain
of transmission. The most authoritative collection of Hadith is
that of al-Bukhari. (AG)
HAGUE CONVENTIONS:
The first (1899) and second (1907) Hague Peace Conferences were
early conventions to limit the conduct of warfare and development
of inhumane and expensive armaments. The Hague Conventions are legal
codes for the conduct of war, including prohibitions on the use
of poison gas, attacks upon surrendered soldiers, attacks upon undefended
civilian targets, or weapons calculated to cause unnecessary suffering.
The Hague continues its involvement in international human rights
law, for example the 1923 agreement to restrict aerial bombing to
military not civilian targets, and since 1993 the Hague War Crimes
Tribunal. (See HAGUE TRIBUNAL, GENEVA CONVENTIONS, LIEBER CODE,
INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW) (MP)
HAGUE TRIBUNAL: The
Hague Tribunal for War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia was established
for the UN Security Council in 1993 to uphold international humanitarian
law over alleged crimes against humanity perpetrated during the
Balkan Wars, by defendants including Dusko Tadic, Radovan
Karadzic, General Ratko Mladic and President Slobodan Milosevic.
(See HAGUE CONVENTIONS, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW, INTERNATIONAL
CRIMINAL COURT, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY) (MP)
HALACHA: A
Hebrew word literally meaning "walking", and referring to the path
which a religious Jew is expected to follow in life. Etymologically
and semantically, the word is therefore similar to "DO" in Japanese
and "TAO" in Chinese. Its basis is the Bible, especially the first
five books, which are called the Tora. According to tradition, the
Tora was given to Moshe at Mount Sinai in a written form, together
with an oral interpretation, which was passed on by word of mouth,
from generation to generation, until much of it was finally written
down, in the "Mishna", during the time of Roman rule in the Land
of Israel. But writing it down did not mean that there would not
be further need for interpretation, and further discussions, commentaries
and legends were written in the first centuries A.D. in the Talmud.
This process of continuous discussion and interpretation has continued
to this day. The entire corpus, includes thousands of books. Those
opinions upon which there is wide consensus are collectively called
the Halacha.
Halacha includes religious guidelines having
to do with prayer, Sabbath observance, Jewish dietary laws, etc,
as well as the future bringing of sacrifices to God-about which
there is a debate whether they will include animals or be vegetarian.
It also includes laws of ethical behavior between friends, neighbors
and business associates. Halachic authorities, moreover, have always
dealt with great bioethical questions arising in the social and
scientific contexts of their times. Today there is a growing body
of Halacha dealing with biomedical ethics, environmental ethics,
animal rights, etc. A general introduction is in Rabbi Immanuel
Jakobovits' book: Jewish Medical Ethics. There is also a journal
of halacha and medicine, Assia (meaning "physician" in Aramaic)
which appears in Hebrew and English. (FL)
HALAL: Arabic word meaning "permissible".
In the context of diet, this term refers to foods which are permissible
to observant Muslims. Some of the key factors involved in Halal
foods include: Avoidance of the pig and its products, avoidance
of meat from an animal which was not slaughtered at the neck with
a pronouncement of the name of God over it, and avoidance of alcohol.
The status of certain sea creatures is debated, and is considered
Halal by some Muslims, but not by others. Most food products which
are kosher (see KASHRUT) are considered Halal as well. (AG)
HALF-LIFE: See METABOLISM, RADIOACTIVITY.
HALLUCINATION: a
sensory perception occurring in the wakeful state which is not the
result from external stimuli and may be auditory, gustatory, olfactory,
tactile or visual. Hallucinations may be induced by drugs or may
be a symptom of mental or physical disorders; such as noted in schizophrenia
(Latin alucinari to wander in mind). (See HALLUCINOGENS)
(IP)
HALLUCINOGENS:
one way to classify drugs is by their major effect(s) but, typically,
there are numerous areas of overlap. The drugs which cause hallucinations
(a marked change in the user's sense of the world) are classified
as hallucinogens. These include drugs of potential abuse such as
mescaline, LSD, magic mushrooms and similar substances. The most
well known hazard is the so-called 'bad trip', manifested by uncontrollable
fear, panic and a feeling of impending insanity. (See HALLUCINATION,
PSILOCYBIN, RECREATIONAL DRUGS) (IP)
HALOES: are
a colored or whitish ring or arc of light around and extending outwards
from the sun or moon when seen through an ice crystal cloud or a
sky filled with falling ice crystals. In general the processes of
reflection, refraction, scattering and diffraction, individually
or in combination, produce a wide variety of beautiful optical phenomena
in the atmosphere (See AURA, CORONAS, RAINBOWS, MIRAGES, HALOES
& GREEN FLASH). (IP)
HANDICAP: a social disadvantage resulting from an impairment or disability
which limits or prevents the fulfillment of a "normal" role in life.
In the bioethical sense, handicaps, are imposed by society as an
additional limitation and could be significantly reduced by a change
in social attitude. (DM)
HAPLOID: A
single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material),
present in the egg and sperm cells of animals and in the pollen
cells of plants. Human beings have 23 chromosomes in their reproductive
cells. Compare diploid . Haploid indicates half of total
chromosome (n) of diploid number (2n) in gametes due to reduction
division (meiosis). (DM, JA)
HAPPINESS:
A state of mind typically described as akin to pleasure, joy
or enjoyment; however, in the language of natural science joy/pleasure
are rendered transient emotional states while happiness is a continuum
of pleasure or desired mood tempered by personalized values, history
and a unique view of life. Thus, happiness, from the biological
point of view, demands both the mind’s powers of reasoning and emotional
intelligence – the understanding and use of emotional informatitate
of consciousness) can be spontaneous or artificially induced. The
constitutional right of men and women to pursue their ‘happiness’
means the them the highest enjoyment. (See JOY; PLEASURE; EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE; WELLBEING; DOPAMINE). (IP)
HAPPY-GO-LUCKY:
The condition of a person who trusts happily and haphazardly
to luck in their passage through life. (See HAPPINESS) (MP)
HAPPY
LIFE EXPECTANCY: A comparative measure multiplying average life
expectancy (in years) with average life satisfaction (on a 0-1 scale)
in different countries. ‘Happy life expectancy’ is strongly correlatelated
with murder rate, corruption, military dominance and gender inequality.
(See HAPPINESS, WELLBEING, QUALITY OF LIFE, LIVING STANDARD, LIFE
SATISFACTION) (MP)
HARAKIRI:
(Japanese: hara "belly" + kiri "cut") Japanese
ritual suicide by self-disembowelment with a sword. Also known as
harikari or seppuku, in former times this was considered a suicide
of honour when disgraced or sentenced to death. (See KAROSHI) (MP)
HARD
ENERGY: Non-renewable fossil fuel energies like coal and oil,
typical of current majority consumption, which produce air pollution,
greenhouse gases and are ultimately non-sustainable. Soft Energy
Paths by Amory Lovins also includes nuclear power as ‘hard energy’
because of its inherent danger and waste problems. (See HARD TECHNOLOGY,
SOFT ENERGY) (MP)
HARD POWER: Traditional
‘hard’ powive over the long term than the use of ‘soft’ power options.
(See HAWK, SOFT POWER) (MP)
HARD TECHNOLOGY: Technology
which is typically high in resource and energy consumption and pollution
emissions, often involved in the production and manufacture of unnecessary
consumer goods and dangerous applications of science. Such industries
produce waste and are wasteful of resources, have unsatisfying labor-intensive
working conditions, and may be dogged by ethical controversy. Hard
technology is usually associated with the ‘hard power’ and ‘hard
energy’ industries. There are opportunities forthcoming from across
the board of technologies, and socially responsible corporate codes
of conduct would shift heavy industry towards the sphere of ‘soft’
or sustainable technologies. (See SOFT TECHNOLOGY, HARD POWER, HARD
ENERGY) (MP)
HARDWARE: Mechanical and electronic
equipment such as work tools, gear, gadgets and machines. Also the
material (non-software) elements of computers such as keyboard,
monitor, motherboard, central processing unit, discs, drives, cards
and chips. (See SOFTWARE, COMPUTER) (MP)
HARDWOODS:
Durable, firm, compact timbers, or the angiosperm trees yielding
such wood. Examples include eucalyptus, oak, maple and mahogany.
(See SOFTWOODS) (MP)
HARM MINIMIZATION:
Harm minimization is a management strategy which attempts to protect
individuals or the environment from harm as the main priority ahead
of political or commercial considerations. The term is most commonly
used with reference to the war on drugs and the consequences of
drug addiction - it implies a pragmatic acknowledgment that addicts
will continue to use, and treats addiction as a medical rather than
a criminal problem. Harm minimization for addicts/victims is not
necessarily incompatible with zero tolerance for drug traffickers/dealers.
Common harm minimization strategies include needle exchange programs,
heroin trials, medically-supervised injecting rooms, methadone programs,
access to counseling and medical supervision, pharmacotherapy, ecstasy
testers in clubs, drug education in schools, tolerance of possession
for personal use, discrimination between 'hard' and 'soft' drug
categories, imprisonment only as a last resort, and drug decriminalization.
(See DECRIMINALIZATION, HEROIN TRIALS, ZERO TOLERANCE). (IP+MP)
HASHISH: (Arabic:
"hemp" or "dried grass") The purified exudation of resin and pollen
from plants of the genus Cannabis , which forms a sticky
brown substance which is smoked for its euphoric effects. Its active
constituent (THC) is the same as for marijuana, and despite its
illegality, hashish is very popular among young people especially
in Europe. Hash or hash oil are usually smoked with tobacco to enable
burning, however this habit risks nicotine addiction. (See MARIJUANA,
THC). (IP+MP)
HAWK: A
colloquial term for a hard-line politician or international strategist
who considers that power and strength are fundamental to success
in foreign relations. Hawks are characterised by a mistrustful and
adversarial nature, believe in deterrence and coercion, and have
a willingness to use aggressive armed conflict. The outcome of hawkish
behaviour from both sides can be the self-fulfilling prophecy of
war. The hawk mentality is named after predatory diurnal birds of
the family Falconidae such as falcons, goshawks, kites and buzzards.
Other related meanings include to hunt on the wing, a person who
preys upon others, or an aggressive salesperson. (See DOVE) (MP)
HAZARD: " a biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of,
food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect. (JA)
HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL:
See HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE.
HAZARDOUS MICROORGANISMS:
Any microscopic organism, bacteria/virus/fungi/mycoplasma, cell
lines/stem cells/algae/protozoans that may be used in biological
warfare including genetically modified microorganism. (JA)
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE: Any chemical substance/chemical preparation or chemical substances
by reason of their chemical properties/physico-chemical nature are
liable to cause harm to all living organism/environment, including
human beings. Usually categorized by a competent authority (specified
by a given country’s federal government under the Environment
(Protection Act or similar government notification) and listed for
public knowledge and for legal purposed. (JA)
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE-AUTHORIZATION:
Authorization given to a person /organization by a national competent
authority to visit a Hazardous substance waste-dump-site to collect/treat/transport
/store or dispose such waste. (JA)
HAZARDOUS WASTE-DUMP-SITE: A
disposal site for hazardous waste material which has been duly approved
by the competent authority; a place for final storage for disposal/treatment.
Eg. Nuclear waste. (JA)
HAZARDOUS WASTE TREATMENT FACILITY: A facility wherein treatment
of disposal of hazardous waste or processes incidental to such treatment/disposal
is carried out. (JA)
HEALTH: A
condition of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being
- not just the absence of disease. The maintenance of health is
not a static condition, rather a well-directed homeostatic response
to continually changing environmental conditions and the need to
adapt to them. (see HOMEOSTASIS and WELLBEING) (IP)
HEALTH CARE DELIVERY:
The provision and distribution of health services to a population.
(DM)
HEALTH EDUCATION:
Health-related education geared to the consumer or patient or society.
(DM)
HEALTH FACILITIES: Institutions including clincs, hospitals, tissue banks, and other
physical structures linked to the provision of health care or diagnostics.
(DM)
HEALTH HAZARDS:
See BIOHAZARDS, ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS, OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE, RADIATION,
TOXICITY.
HEALTH INFORMATION:
See MEDICAL INFORMATION DIRECTORIES.
HEALTH INSURANCE:
A system of financing to insure persons against health-related risks.
Both private and public sector health insurance schemes exist. (DM)
HEALTH MAINTENANCE ORGANIZATIONS (HMOs): Organizations
providing health services to enrolled members for a fixed fee, commonly
used term in USA. (See MANAGED CARE PROGRAMS) (DM)
HEALTH PERSONNEL:
Term used to include all persons related to delivery of health care,
including Administrators, Dentists, Doctors, Nurses, Patient care
team, Pharmacists, Physicians, Social workers. (DM)
HEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH:
Research concerned with the organization, administration, needs,
and functioning of health services. (DM)
HEALTH SYSTEMS: Includes
hospital services and their satellite paramedical systems, community
care and health promotion, holistic view is that it enables people
to live healthy lives. (JA)
HEARING:
the sense that enables sound to be perceived. The ear is the organ
of hearing - it is supplied by the 8th cranial nerve which is stimulated
by the vibrations caused by sound waves. Every sound produces sound
waves or disturbances in the air, which travel at about 340 meters
per second. Because of its shape, the outer external ear concentrates
the waves and directs them along the auditory meatus causing the
ear drum (tympanic membrane) to vibrate. These vibrations are transmitted
through the air-filled middle ear by movements of the auditory ossicles
- three very small bones called the malleus, incus and stapes. The
ossicles extend across the middle ear and function like a series
of movable joints with each other and with the medial wall separating
the middle and inner ear cavities called the oval window. It is
the stapes that rocks to and fro in the oval window setting up fluid
pressure waves in the internal ear which stimulate the neuroepithelial
cells of the organ of hearing the cocklea from which nerve impulses
pass to the hearing areas in the mid brain and cerebral cortex.
It is in the brain where sound is perceived. Also situated in the
internal ear are the semicircular canals - three tubes arranged
so that one is stimulated in each of the three planes of space.
The semicircular canals have no auditory function although they
are closely associated with the cocklea - they provide information
about the position of the head in space, contributing to the maintenance
of equilibrium and balance. There are many diseases of the ear -
prominently infections which may permanently affect hearing due
to destruction of, for example, the ossicles causing conduction
hearing loss or deafness, or damage to the cocklea or auditory nerve
causing sensorineural hearing loss or deafness. Deafness in the
young is usually caused by faulty nerve perception and may be due
to genetic abnormality, rubella infection in the mother in the first
3 months of pregnancy or acute hypoxia (asphyxiation) at birth or
soon after. (See HYPOXIA, SENSES, SOUND) (IP)
HEARING LOSS:
See HEARING.
HEATING: Heat
is a form of energy transfer. Specific heat capacity is the energy
required to raise one kilogram of a substance by one Kelvin. Heat
always travels from matter at a higher temperature to matter at
a lower temperature. This is the basis of the solar hot water system
and the heat pump. Some animals have a heat exchange system to maintain
the body temperature of organs such as the brain. Heating and cooling
of home and work spaces requires significant global energy resources,
so building materials should be selected which are slow to transfer
heat. (See TEMPERATURE) (MP)
HEAVEN: Place
reserved for the righteous after death. Many religious traditions
include a belief in some form of heaven, which reflects the reward
in the next world that doers of good deeds will receive after death.
This place is referred to in opposition to a place known as hell,
which is reserved for evildoers. (see Hell). Some religious systems
however, hold an alternate view, that the souls or spirits of those
who have died go to a place known as "netherworld", regardless of
their moral standing. (see Netherworld) Many different descriptions
exist of heaven in different religious traditions, some more elaborate
than others. However, these various traditions do seem to be in
agreement about general ideas of heaven. For example: that heaven
is a place where there is no pain or suffering, and that it is a
pleasurable place, whether in spiritual or physical terms. (AG)
HEDONISM: What serves a person’s
interest is that which makes that individual’s life happiest
(Gk hedone meaning pleasure). (IP)
HEGEL, GWF: (1770-1831)
German philosopher of metaphysics and history. He believed that
history is a process in which Spirit reveals itself and achieves
freedom through a "dialectical" process involving "thesis", "antithesis"
and "synthesis". In his essay "Philosophical History" he argued
that this process has undergone stages in which the Orientals only
knew that one is free, the Greeks knew that some are free, and finally
the Germans achieved the realization that man, as such, is free.
His spiritual dialectic was adopted by Marx (q.v.) and converted
to a material dialectic. The idea of a three-stage dialectic obviously
has some truth, even in bioethics. For example the radical disregard
for kindness to animals (thesis), engendered a radical animal- rights
movement (antithesis), which may be resulting in a compromise (synthesis)
in which experimentation is continuing but with much greater efforts
to reduce the suffering to animals. (FL)
HEISENBERG’s UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
Werner Karl Heisenberg’s theory central to queasurement of
a system n quantum mechanics have provided fuel for the philosophical
concept of free will. (See QUANTUM THEORY) (MP)
HELL: Place reserved for the wicked after death. This place is mentioned
in opposition to heaven, which is the place of the good and righteous.
(see heaven) Hell is described in many traditions as a place of
suffering and torment, and most descriptions also refer to hell
as a place of great heat, in which the high temperatures contribute
to the suffering of those within. The concepts of hell and heaven
are strong in Zoroastrian belief, due to this system's strong dualism.
This Zoroastrianism view of the afterlife had major influence on
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Catholic teaching, a third category
in addition to heaven and hell is taught, due to various theological
considerations (see Limbo). For an alternate approach to the afterlife,
see the entry Netherworld. (AG)
HELSINKI DECLARATION: A Declaration of the World Medical
Association (WMA) adopted by the 18th WMA General Assembly in Helsinki,
Finland in June 1964 on Ethical Principles for Medical Research
Involving Human Subjects. It has been modified at a number of subsequent
WMA meetings. It is not to be confused with the Helsinki Accords,
(Aug. 1, 1975), a major
diplomatic agreement signed in Helsinki, Finland, at the conclusion
of the first Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE).
HEMATOPOIETIC: See
also STEM CELLS.
HEMIZYGOTE: Refers
to the state of genes located on the sexual chromosomes. In males,
genes on the X chromosome are hemizygous, and will always be expressed
as if they were dominant. In females, if one X chromosome exhibits
a deletion, then the genotype of the corresponding gene on the other
chromosome will also be hemizygous. (GK)
HEPATITIS: Causes liver disease.
Three main types of viral hepatitis, Hepatitis A (HAV), B (HBV)
& C (HCV). There is transmission of HAV through food, water
and shellfish; HBV through exchange of body fluids, blood or blood
products, contaminated needles. Sexual intercourse can spread the
disease. HCV- through transfusion. (JA)
HERACLITUS: (c.
500 BC) Believed that fire is the primary element, perhaps as a
metaphorical expression of his most famous doctrine, viz. that all
things are in a constant state of change. You cannot even step into
the same river twice. Reflecting on his doctrine might help us learn
to cope with the fundamental changes which biotechnology is making
to our world. Perhaps learning to live sanely and ethically in a
radically changing world is a more realistic goal than deciding
what to permit and what to forbid. (see QUANTUM THEORY) (FL)
HERB: defined botanically
as a non-woody plant that dies down to the ground after flowering
but the term 'herb', in its wider definition, can be applied to
any plant, part or whole, which has been used for such purposes
as medical treatment, nutritional value, food seasoning, coloring
or dying of other substances. (See HERBALISM, BUSH MEDICINE). (IP)
HERBAL MEDICINE: is
the use of plant products (seeds, roots, stems, fruits and flowers)
for either preventative health or therapeutic purposes. Herbs in
this usage are not restricted to those plants classified botanically
as herbs, rather it includes all plants. Herbal medicine is also
known as botanical medicine, phytotherapy, phytomedicine and may
be used either alone or more commonly as an integral part of another
complementary therapy, for example as part of naturopathy, traditional
Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. (See HERBALISM, HERB, BUSH MEDICINE)
(JW)
HERBALISM: the knowledge and study of herbs. Historically the most important
uses of herbs were medicinal in the treatment of injuries and diseases.
Separately or in herbal combination Homo sapiens has used
internal and external remedies prepared from plants, animals and
minerals which were typically used in conjunction with sorcery,
prayer, music, crude operations and psychological therapy. Just
as we learned by instinct and generations of trial and error that
some plants were good to eat and others could cause poisoning and
death, prehistoric humans gained the knowledge that certain plants
were useful for treating illness. In the written record, the study
of herbs dates back over 5000 years to the Sumerians, who described
well established medicinal uses for such plants as laurel, caraway
and thyme. The first known Chinese herbal remedies date from 2700
BCE and list 365 medicinal plants and their uses. The Egyptians
of 1000 BCE are known to have used garlic, opium and castor oil
and botanists of later centuries were similarly influenced by pre-existing
insights. The Greek book that founded the science of botany - Theophrastus'
'Historia Plantarum' -written in the fourth century BCE is
part of this continuum of knowledge. (See HERBAL MEDICINE, HERB,
BUSH MEDICINE, GINSENG, POISON HEMLOCK) (IP)
HERBICIDE TOLERANT PLANTS: A able to withstand the action of a herbicide which can kill the
plant normally. (JA)
HERBICIDES:
Composition of word from cide= kill. A poison, compound capable
of killing a plant, used in weed control. For example, wide spectrum
(Roundup) and narrow spectrum, specific to some plants without endangering
the ecosystem. There are two main mechanism:, 1. Interfering with
energy metabolism Eg. Monuron; 2.defoliation E.g. di and tri chlorophenoxyacetic
acid. (JA)
HEREDITY: (Latin hereditas 'inheritance') is embedded within the DNA
of each chromosome where the genes or gene combinations function
as a 'unit of heredity' specifying particular traits such as eye
colour. Heredity offers an explanation as to why members of one
family develop, for example, diabetes, cancer or arthritis at a
relatively early age while members of another family are not afflicted
until much later or not at all. (See HEREDITARY DISEASES). (IP)
HEREDITARY DISEASES: pertaining to a characteristic
inborn ailment transmitted from parent to offspring. Couples have
an elevated concern if they had already given birth to an infant
with an obviously hereditary trait present in the family; however,
parental age (both male and female), ethnic background and certain
reproductive difficulties may elevate the risk of certain genetic
diseases. Unfortunately risks can only be stated in hard statistical
terms but an informed decision about having children or not can
only be reached when all the available facts are known. (See HEREDITY).
(IP)
HERITAGE: The
inheritance bequeathed upon following generations. Heritage may
be personal, for example the genetic characteristics, material possessions
or social status into which an heir is born. Heritage may also be
collective, for example the cultural traditions, historical monuments
and conserved natural areas which are the inheritance of the global
society. (See WORLD HERITAGE, NATURAL HERITAGE, CULTURAL HERITAGE)
(MP)
HEROIC TREATMENT: Use EXTRAORDINARY TREATMENT.
HEROIN:
Heroin is one of a group of drugs known as 'opiates' (sometimes
called 'narcotic analgesics'). Other opiates include opium, morphine,
codeine, pethidine and methadone. Heroin and other opiates are highly
addictive 'depressant' drugs, which physiologically slow down the
activity of the central nervous system and the messages going to
and from the brain and body. Alcohol and cannabis are also depressant
drugs. Using heroin while pregnant is harmful as the habit risks
intrauterine growth retardation, miscarriage and premature labor.
Additionally, these underdeveloped drug-dependent babies suffer
withdrawal and are at increased risk of SIDS; thus, these babies
may require special neonatal hospital care. (See METHODONE, MORPINE,
INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION, RECREATIONAL DRUGS, ADDICTION).
(IP)
HERPETOLOGY: (Greek:
herpet ó
n "reptile" + logos "reason") The scientific study
of reptilian and amphibian life. Herpetologists investigate the
physiology, ecology, behavior and classification of reptiles and
amphibians. (MP)
HETEROGENEOUS:
Consisting of different parts; not of the same kind of nature.
(BP)
HETEROGRAFT:
See XENOGRAFT.
HETEROSEXUAL: (Greek
heteros "other") an individual’s disposition to
feeling love, or have sexual relations with, persons of the opposite
sex. (see HOMOSEXUAL) (IP)
HETEROSEXUAL-HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE:
an arbitrary gradation
developed by Kinsey and his colleagues in the US for measuring the
degree of heterosexuality and homosexuality by categorizing an individual
into one of seven classifications according to sexual behavior and
interest (see QUEER THEORY). (IP)
HETEROTROPHS: (Greek heteros 'different' + trophe
'food') Are
organisms (e.g., animals) that obtain their external source of energy
from foods - complex organic substances that were synthesized by
other organisms (Greek heteros different + trophe food).
(Contrast
AUTOTROPHS) (IP)
HETEROZYGOTE: Hetero other than/different; All the cells of an organism have two
copies of the same gene. When both genes are different from each
other then this condition is referred to as heterozygous condition.
(JA)
HETEROZYGOUS: Having
two different alleles at the same point on a pair of chromosomes.
(DM)
HEURISTICS:
Decisions made by ‘educated guesswork’ for problem solving in
a situation of uncertainty. A ‘heuristic method’ is investigative
and may involve iterative processes and incremental searches which
follow probabilistic rules to minimize the search area. (See FUZZY
LOGIC, ITERATIVE PROCESS, UNCERTAINTY) (MP)
HFEA:
Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority, United Kingdom.
HGAC: Human
Genetics Advisory Commission, United Kingdom.
HGC:
Human Genetic Commission, United Kingdom.
HIERARCHY THEORY: See
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS.
HIGH
POWER MICROWAVES: A recently developed military technology which
involves a sudden massive pulse of microwave energy designed to
fry electronic circuitry. Weaponized by incorporation onto Tomahawk
cruise missiles, high power microwaves act in a similar way to a
lightning strike by disabling the computer or communications devices
necessary for the deployment of enemy technology. (See NON-LETHAL
WEAPONRY) (MP)
HIPPIES:
At many times, there have been rebels against the established
social and economic systems. Often they may have gone unnoticed.
But sometimes they have attracted much attention and even made an
impact on history. At the time of the Protestant Reformation in
Europe, and in particular the revolt of Cromwell and the Parliamentaery
sect against the monarchy and the established Church in 17th century
England, the Seekers and the Diggers were influential radical sects.
The Seekers wandered the British Isles, seeking after truth. The
Diggers, believing that land was given by God for the benefit of
all humans, and that the accumulation of land in the hands of the
nobility and the church was a form of theft from the people, went
out and simply cultivated and grew foodstuffs on unused land which
supposedly "belonged" to the Church and to the nobility. Not long
thereafter in North America, there were various communes. Some,
like the Shakers, were religiously oriented. Others, like the Oneida
Community were more free. In the East, too, there have been wandering
religious pilgrims in India, as well as ashrams where a simple communal
life is lived in renunciation of the materialism, greed and competition
of society. The Taoists in China are an other example.
The Beatniks in 1950's America, and the Hippies
in the 1960's and 70's, were simply a development of this old tradition.
What was unique to the Hippies was the opposition to the war in
Vietnam, to capitalist exploitation, and to environmental pollution.
There were movements to stop war by putting flowers into the riflebarrels.
This "Flower Power" was beautiful if naive. There was also much
Nudism (q.v) both as a form of social protest, and as an attempt
to break free of social convention and to start afresh as if in
a metaphorical New Garden of Eden. Free Love was also encouraged,
and was much easier to practice in those days before HIV became
a major epidemic. And there was a movement of serious, hardworking
"back to the landers", who left the military-industrial society
to start an alternative society on homesteads and communes, often
in clearings within heavily forested areas. Their ideas of organic
agriculture were then considered radical, but are recognized today
by many people as being environmentally and nutritionally sound.
People tend to forget history, and the Hippies were quite unaware
of their roots in the radical thinking of the Protestant Reformation
and among the American Colonists. They were not aware that many
of their ideas of freedom were almost identical to those which contributed
to the American Revolution against the British. If the hippies had
used Thomas Jefferson as their figurehead, rather than Mao Tse Tung
and Ho Chi Mihn, they might have won their revolution. (FL)
HIPPOCRATES: c460-377
BC Greek physician and philosopher.
HIPPOCRATIC OATH: an
oath of ethical professional behavior sworn by new physicians, attributed
to Hippocrates, but thought to be written by followers of Pythagoras.
(DM)
HIROSHIMA: see ATOM BOMB.
HISTOCOMPATIBLE: The condition in which tissues will not react to produce a rejection
during transplantation. (DM)
HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS: Proteins
on the cell surface of virtually any nucleated cell, that can behave
as antigens when organs or tissues are transplanted from a donor
to a host. The immune system from the host might recognize these
proteins as foreign, and mount an immune response against the cell
surface proteins from the donor. (See also HLA GENES and MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY
COMPLEX.) (GK)
HISTOGRAM:
A statistical graph that represents, by the height of a rectangular
column, the number of times that each class of result occurred in
a sample or experiment. The weather chart as shown on TV is typically
in histogram form. (See BAR CHART, GRAPH). (IP)
HLA LOCUS CLASS I , CLASS II & CLASS
III GENES: Immune
response genes from the Major Histocompatibility Complex. Class
I (HLA-A, B and C genes) encode cell surface proteins expressed
on nucleated cells. The protein forms a heterodimer with another
protein, beta 2-microglobulin, encoded on chromosome 15. Class II
genes (HLA-DR, DQ, DP) encode membrane proteins found mainly on
B lymphocytes. The two polypeptides (alpha and beta) form heterodimers,
each coded by a specific set of genes (DRA and DRB, DQA and DQB,
DPA and DPB). Class III genes encode soluble proteins from the complement
system (C2, C4 and BF), effector of the humoral response. (GK)
HIV: Human immunodeficiency
virus, a causative agent in the disease AIDS. (DM)
HIV SEROPOSITIVITY: Development of neutralizing
antibodies in persons who have been exposed to the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV/HTLV-III/LAV); linked to development of the acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex. (DM)
HOLISTIC MEDICINE: is based on the belief that good health is a result of the integration
of the physical, spiritual, social and emotional components of life.
The aim of holistic medicine is the promotion of optimal health.
Holistic medical systems may encompass religion, health education
and complementary therapies, and do not exclude use of conventional
or orthodox treatments. However it should be noted that within some
groups holistic medicine is used interchangeable with both complementary
and alternative medicine. Holistic medical systems may include such
practices as naturopathy, herbal medicine, massage and other physical
therapies, acupuncture, homeopathy and meditation and well as spiritual
belief systems. (see COMPLEMENTARY & HERBAL MEDICINE) (JW)
HOLY BIBLE: See BIBLE, OLD TESTAMENT,
NEW TESTAMENT, QURAN.
HOME CARE: Care of a patient at
home, by family members and/or health personnel. (See AGED, HOSPICE).
(DM)
HOMO ECONOMICUS: See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS: The biological name for
Neaderthals.
HOMO SAPIENS: The
biological name for the human species.
HOMO SUSTINENS: See
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
HOMOEOPATHY: is
a therapy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the late 1700. This treatment
is based on the Law of Similiars, a law that states "like cures
like" ie. a disease or symptoms caused by a particular substance
can be cured by minute doses of the same substance. Homeopaths claim
that "potentization" (a combination of dilution and vigorous shaking
of the substance) are critical to the effectiveness of homeopathic
remedies. The higher the dilution of the substance the more potent
it is said to be. Homeopathy dilutions are usually indicated by
either a D or X (1:10), or a C (1:100) - hence a potency of 6X results
in a final dilution of 1 in 106 (1:1,000,000). Considerable
debate has occurred in the scientific and medical community as to
whether there is any scientific basis for homeopathy and results
of clinical trials and other studies have proven inconclusive (see
Ayurvedic Medicine & Holistic Medicine). (JW)
HOMEOSTASIS: 1. a system that maintains
a dynamically stable state by internal regulation similar to a thermostat
governing the temperature of a room. 2. the ability of the body
to support life by keeping the internal chemical environment constant
within a normal range of values. Physical harmony and mental balance
are based on adaptive resilience to change - especially significant
in complicated social animals such as ourselves. (See ALLOSTASIS,
GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME, GAIA HYPOTHESIS). (IP)
HOMOGENOUS:
Of the same kind of nature, or consisting of the same parts.
(BP)
HOMOGRAFT:
See ALLOGRAFT.
HOMOLOGOUS RECOMBINATION: A process of DNA exchange where introduced DNA is substituted for
native DNA containing identical or very similar (homologous) nucleotide
base sequences at the edges of the exchanged regions. (DM)
HOMOLOGOUS SEQUENCE: Nucleic
acid segments having an identical or nearly identical linear order
of nucleotide base pairs. (DM)
HOMOLOGY: Degree of relatedness
in appearance, function, or structure. (DM+GK)
HOMOZYGOTE:
(Greek Homo "same") All the cells of an organism
have two copies of the same gene. When both the genes are different
then this condition is known as homozygous condition. (JA)
HOMOZYGOUS: Having
identical alleles at the same point on a pair of chromosomes. (DM)
HOMEO BOX: A
short stretch of nucleotides whose sequence is virtually identical
in all the genes that contain it. It has been found in many organisms,
from fruit flies to human beings. It appears to determine when particular
groups of genes are expressed in the development of the fruit fly.
(DM)
HOMOPHOBIA:
The irrational fear and hatred of homosexuals and homosexual
behavior. It may also indicate a fear of being gay. Prejudices toward
lesbians and gay men may often operate with societal and religious
sanction in order to keep in place heterosexism and its procreative
potential. Feminists insist that homosexual oppression must be understood
within the broader framework of patriarchal sexism. Alternatively,
many of these hostile attitudes are erroneously embedded in beliefs
and assumptions of how nature operates and what is ‘natural’ human
L ORIENTATION; SEXUAL IDENTITY; BIOSCIENCE ETHICS). (IP)
HOMOSEXUAL:
a disposition to feeling love, to have sexual relations with,
persons of the same sex, worldly concern for justice since dualism
in the understanding of moral and natural law; e.g., historically
Judaism, Christianity, Islam condemn homosexual acts conflicts with
liberal view [Greek homos same]. (See SEXUAL ORIENTATION;
HOMOSEXUALITY). (IP)
HOMOSEXUALITY: (Greek
homos "same") a disposition to feeling carnal love
for, or having sex with, persons of the same gender. Sexual orientation
has generated ethical concern where a failure to reconcile the domains
separating human-made (moral) law and evolutionary (biological)
understanding perpetuates a cycle of violence and discrimination.
Historically Judaism, Christianity and Islam condemn homosexual
acts, however, opinions on "pederasty between males" conflicts with
ancient and modern liberal points of view. For example, from the
6 th to the 4 th century BC the term "pederasty"
[Greek paidos boy + erastes lover]described a kind
of friendship where an adolescent male youth received an education
from an assigned older companion. The adult gave advice and all
knowledge he possessed from his education and experience to the
adolescent and was reimbursed, in turn, by the enjoyment of the
adolescent’s beauty and grace - but not completely devoid
of erotic expression or tender caress; that ithe ethical perspective,
homosexuality had its own special character strictly maintained
on and the elevation of social and personal values. (see LESBIAN/ISM;
QUEER THEORY; EROS; APHRODITE) (IP)
HOPE: look
forward with expectation for a particular desire or outcome to happen.
The notion of hope is dominant in human nature where it is expressed
in our thoughts, behavior and everyday speech - " hope that you're
well ", " here's hoping " - and so on. Much has been
written about the nature of hope which can also be found in myths
such as the Greek story of Pandora's box. Pandora, a beautiful woman
fashioned by the gods out of clay and water, was sent down by Zeus
in order to punish the mortals for Prometheus's act of stealing
fire. She came with a vase (sometimes represented as a box) but
was warned on no account to open it which, out of curiosity, she
did. As she opened the container all the terrible afflictions that
blight human beings - famine, physical sickness, insanity, old age,
vice, lust etc - spilled out before she could quickly closed it
leaving only hope trapped inside. Why was hope left in the vase?
One meaning of this myth may be that hope is always embedded within
disasters because the benevolent side of the gods saw that humanity
needed to hold onto hope. Our task is to turn hope into realistic
plans for the future that will alleviate our troubles and 'hopefully'
prevent their recurrence. Hope, if outward looking, creates new
possibilities and contributes to psychological maturation but when
it turns away from reality favoring illusion and indulgence, it
remains immature and cannot enhance adaptive survival (see ALLOSTASIS,
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS and WELLBEING). (IP)
HORIZONTAL TRANSFER: The
passage of genetic material from one organism to another via nonsexual
mechanisms. (DM)
HORMONE: Chemical substances produced
in one part of the body that affect an organ or group of cells in
another area of the body. (DM)
HORMONE MIMICS OR DISRUPTORS: See
SYNTHETIC HORMONE DISRUPTERS.
HORTICULTURE: A
branch of agriculture, the scientific cultivation of commercially
important fruits, vegetables, ornamental plans, spices and herbs.
(JA)
HOSPICE: (Latin
hospes "host")
Facilities and/or services that provide palliative and supportive
care for terminally ill patients and their families. A multidisciplinary
system of family-centered supervision designed to assist the terminally
ill person through the phases of dying. Hospice care includes home
visits, professional health care, education, emotional support for
the family, physical care of the patient, and may be provided in
the center or at home. A major landmark in society’s increasing
perceptiveness of the true nature of death was the publication of
the book On Death and Dying by Elisabeth KŸ bler-Ross, M.D.
Following her lead, a general awareness, including our bioethical
responsibility to the dying has matured - prior to that time death
was the sole province of the priest and doctors were expected to
concentrate on the living. (IP)
HOTSPOTS: is
the most ecologically sensitive area requiring high preservation
priorities, with high species richness with rare species, e.g. tropical
rain forest, such areas are prone to species loss. - 25 identified
hot spots worldwide, India has two, The Eastern Himalayas covering
a length of 3,500 Kms and the Western Ghats with a length of 1,600
Kms. (JA)
HUBBLE
TELESCOPE: Orbiting satellite telescope launched in 1990, the
Hubble Space Telescope was named after astronomer Edwin Hubble,
the discoverer of galactic recession. (See SATELLITE, COBE) (MP)
HUGO:
Human Genome Organization, an international body to coordinate
efforts to sequence the human genome. (see HUMAN GENOME PROJECT)
(DM)
HUMAN: To
a biologist, a member of the species Homo sapiens. Also used
as a near synonym for a person, i.e. a moral agent. (MR)
HUMAN
BODY CELL TYPES: A collection of similar types of cells forms
an organ and a collection of different organ systems constitute
a body. In human body there are about 260 different cell types like
the nerve cell, skin cell, kidney cell and heart cell. All different
cell types work together to make the human body a functional
whole – which is a best example of “systems approach”. (JA).
HUMAN
BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY: the branch of evolutionary ecology concerned
with tracing the link between ecological factors and adaptive behavior.
This anthropological approach to the evolutionary analysis of human
behavior crystallized during the 1970s with E.O. Wilson Sociobiology
(1975) and Richard Dawkins The Selfish Gene (1976) (see
SOCIOBIOLOGY; EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY AND DUAL INHERITANCE THEORY).
(IP)
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX: An
indicator of expected quality of life which combines four statistical
indices: annual economic output, average life expectancy, adult
literacy rate, and education enrolment. The HDI is published annually
by the United Nations Development Programme, and enables rough national
comparisons of social development with an emphasis on education.
Variations on the index can differentiate between regions, genders
and classes. (See GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, GENUINE PROGRESS INDICATORS,
INDEX OF SOCIAL HEALTH) (MP)
HUMAN
DIGNITY: Substantially, the concept of human dignity bases
on the teaching of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804),
who ascribed “dignity” to any entity that does not have a price.
This did not only include human beings (a kitten, for a person who
loves her, does not have a price). “Human dignity” is the particular
dignity that only human beings posses. The concept of “human dignity”
also has its roots in religious dogmas which conceptualize human
beings as having been created in the image of G-d. Therefore, they
are something “worthy”, and should be respected by fellow human
beings. Following Kant, a human being should never be treated as
a means, but only as an end.
In most parts of the world, there is a wide
consensus that every human being possesses dignity and should be
treated with due respect and consideration. Nevertheless, critics
are concerned with the diffuseness of the concept. The content of
the term of “human dignity” is itself a mbryos, for people in favour
of advancing with medical research it is against human dignity not
to use embryos for research that could lead to cures for fatal diseases).
(BP)
HUMAN
ECOLOGY: The branch of study which integrates the theories of
sociology and ecology in order to explain human location, function
and behavior in interaction with the environment. Such research
elucidates human impacts on the environment as well as our reverse
susceptibilities for example environmental pollutants created by
us also return to impact the health of human populations. (See ECOLOGY,
SOCIOLOGY, HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY) (MP)
HUMAN EMBRYO:
See EMBRYO.
HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION: See CLINICAL TRIALS,
and HELSINKI DECLARATION.
HUMAN EXTINCTION: It
is amazing how little emphasis is placed on discussion and planning
for the future survival of our own species. It seems as if, like
an adolescent, we have not yet come to terms with our own mortality.
In the long term, it is almost inevitable that our species will
go extinct or be otherwise transformed by evolution or technology.
Human populations have undergone massive expansion in a very short
period of time from only 2 billion people in 1930 to currently well
over 6 billion people, and the associated increase in human activity
and consumption has precipitated the sixth Mass Extinction of global
biodiversity. In ecology, unregulated increases in population size
beyond the capacity of the environment to sustain them result in
catastrophic decline. Habitat destruction and other ecological disturbances
such as global warming have undermined the living systems upon which
the health of the globe and our existence depend. Rapid changes
to the composition of the atmosphere have caused global disruption
before in the history of the Earth. Major epidemics are increasingly
likely, due to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant or other new
strains of disease and the ease by which microbes can travel across
our international transport network. With the accelerating pace
of change, future developments in technology and warfare may pose
an even more immediate danger to the human species. Three technologies
in particular have the potential power to devastate the Earth Genetics,
Nanotechnology and Robotics. Each of these new technologies have
a dangerous combination of characteristics, in particular the ability
to self-replicate in a chain reaction with no upper limit, which
place them in a league of destructiveness which may be on a scale
larger than that of the Earth itself. Genetically engineered or
nanotechnology weapons have the potential to be selectively destructive
to certain regions or genetically distinct populations. Dangerously,
the advent of the internet and the declining power of government
regulation have placed these technologies within the reach of individuals
and small groups rather than just nation states. The development
of new technology often seems to move faster than our philosophical
understanding of its consequences. Human survival may now depend
upon globalising the culture of ethics to control the development
and spread of dangerous information and technology. (MP)
HUMAN FREEDOM INDEX: An
index proposed by the United Nations Development Programme to measure
human rights and freedoms in different nations. The index indicates
the presence or absence of 40 equally weighted rights and freedoms,
including for example gender equality, homosexual rights, independent
courts and freedom from torture. (See HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX) (MP)
HUMAN GENE THERAPY: Insertion
of normal DNA directly into cells to correct a genetic defect. An
important biotechnological application for the treatment and prevention
of genetic diseases. The first human gene therapy protocol began
in September 1990 that successfully treated adenosine deaminase
deficiency (ADA) disease. If gene therapy is adequately successful,
it will revolutionize the medicine of the future and will have a
profound impact on our moral and ethical outlook. (DM, IP)
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT: Collective
name for several projects begun in the mid 1980's in several countries,
following the USA Department of Energy decision to 1) create an
ordered set of DNA segments from known chromosomal locations, 2)
develop new computational methods for analyzing genetic map and
DNA sequence data, and 3) develop new techniques and instruments
for detecting and analyzing DNA. (DM)
HUMAN IMMORTALITY: See
LIFE EXTENSION, AGING, TELOMERES, DOWNLOADED MINDS.
HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV): The
virus causing AIDS.
HUMAN
PARTHENOTE: It is a human egg which is artificially activated
and it has been generated by ACT in USA. Human egg when artificially
activated beings to develop with only one set of chromosomes derived
from the mother. In a regular human embryo, the pronuclei of both
the sperm and the egg unite at conception to form the zygote. In
this respect the egg developed by parthenogenesis differs from a
human embryo. Parthenote is also called parthenogenote or parthenogenone.
(See PARTHENOGENESIS).
Since
in a parthenote there is no conception and fertilization and zygote
formation as in a regular human embryo a parthenote has no equal
status with a human embryo. This ethical issue is debatable. Other
bioethicist compare the human parthenote to a human gamete which
is just a sex cell. The human stem cell under this condition still
remains as a cell and not as a human organism As a result
a difference it its “kind” can be perceived. Hence it is arguable
that experiments using ACT s human parthenote is justifiable and
its destruction at the end of an experiment is permissible.
(JA).
HUMAN
REPRODUCTIVE CLONING: production of a human fetus from a single
cell (somatic or fertilized egg at two cell stage) by asexual reproduction.
(JA)
HUMAN RESOURCES: See
Resources.
HUMAN RIGHTS: A
right is a freedom. Sometimes by "rights" we mean the freedoms which
we actually have. Sometimes we mean the freedoms which we ought
to have (ethical rights). In John Locke's (q.v.)philosophy - of
which much was similar to ideas found earlier in John Milton's (q.v.)
political essays -- ethical rights are freedoms to exercise duties.
So for Locke the right to private property is a freedom needed to
perform the God-ordained duty to live and settle the Earth. And
the right to religious toleration is a freedom to exercise the duty
to achieve religious belief. (FL)
HUMAN RIGHTS DECLARATION:
See UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS.
HUMAN RIGHTS LAW:
See INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW.
HUMAN SUBJECT: A
living individual about whom an investigator (whether professional
or student) conducting research obtains (I) data through intervention
or inter action with the individual or identifiable private information.
(JA)
HUMAN WASTE: Human wastes are biologically degradable components of sewage such
as urine and feces which can affect the nutrient loading, dissolved
oxygen, water quality and pathogen load of waterways. The term may
occasionally be used more broadly to all human waste including industrial
pollution and domestic rubbish. (See POLLUTION, SEWAGE, WASTE) (MP)
HUMANISM: An ethical system that emphasizes the welfare of human beings and
the personal worth of each individual. Devotion to human interests
and not concerned with religion. (DM)
HUMANITARIAN: One
who professes humanism
.
HUME, DAVID: (1711-1776)
Scottish historian and philosopher. In his philosophy of science
he rejected mystical ideas of "power", "force" and "causal necessity"
and replaced them with laws of regularities in experience. His laws
of causal regularity anticipated Koch's postulates and much of the
logic of epidemiology. But mystical powers are now returning to
health and bioethical thinking through the East Asian ideas of "ki"
and "chi". In ethics he said that reason is and by right ought to
be the slave of the passions and can pretend to no other office
but to serve and obey them. Good and evil are nothing but positive
or negative feelings which we have when we contemplate objects or
actions. Although an atheist and a hedonistic lover of the good
life, Hume's last days before his death of an extremely painful
illness are a model of good cheer and positive thinking, as described
in memoirs by his friends James Boswell and Adam Smith. They can
be read with profit by those interested in end-of-life, palliative
and hospice care. (FL)
HUMOR: Basic bodily liquid. In the Greek medical tradition, there are four
humors in the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. The
first to suggest this system of humors was apparently Empedocles
(died after 444 bce). The four humors must be in balance for the
person to be healthy. If an imbalance develops, this produces sickness,
and the remedy is produced by "balancing out" the imbalance. That
is, the treatment is designed so as to emphasize the humor opposite
to the one which is in excess, thus returning the body to a state
of balance. The four humors are also said to correspond to the four
elements of ancient Greek belief (water, fire, air, and earth).
According to this system, people are also said to be born with a
tendency towards a particular humor. These birth types are: sanguine,
phlegmatic, choleric, and melancholy. The four humor theory is central
to the Unani medical system (see UNANI). (AG)
HUXLEY, ALDOUS: (1894-1963)
Author of the novel "Brave New World". In this novel, Huxley expresses
his concerns about a future society which is over-automated, and
people are produced in factories according to the type of work they
will be trained to do. The situation is shown to be extreme when
factory-produced people show their disgust towards those who were
born in a non-mechanical way, with words such as "father" and "mother"
being considered swearwords. In addition, Huxley expresses concern
in "Brave New World" over the use of drugs as a method of escape
from reality. The ideas found in "Brave New World" are relevant
to discussions on cloning, genetic engineering, automation of society,
and many other topics of Bioethics. (AG)
HYBRID VEHICLE: The
"hybrid" car uses the range and strength of petrol combined with
the low emissions and fuel-efficiency of electric power. (MP)
HYBRIDS:
The offspring of parents belonging to different species, varieties,
or genotypes. (See CHIMERAS, TRANSGENIC ANIMALS) (DM)
HYBRIDIZATION: The
process of joining two complementary strands of DNA, or of DNA and
RNA, together to form a double-stranded molecule. (DM)
HYBRIDOMA: A
new cell resulting from the fusion of a particular type of immortal
type of immortal tumor cell line, a myeloma, with an antibody-producing
B lymphocyte. Cultures of such cells are capable of continuous growth
and specific (i.e. monoclonal) antibody production. (DM)
HYDATIDIFORM MOLE: A placental abnormality composed of grape-like clusters of chorionic
villi that occurs in approximately 1 in 1500 pregnancies in the
United States and eight times more frequently in some Asian countries
and being more common in older and younger women than in those between
20 and 40 years of age. Molar pregnancies are diagnosed when abortion
is threatened or in progress and are commonly the product of an
abnormal fertilization, usually the fertilization of one ovum by
2 sperm which union results in an aggressive invasion of a potentially
malignant placental tissue into the uterine endometrium. It is important
that pregnancy be avoided for at least 1 year during which time
assays for chorionic gonadotrophin be performed to monitor for the
risk of developing malignant gestational trophoblastic disease.
(DM+IP)
HYDRO ENERGY: See
HYDROELECTRIC POWER.
HYDROELECTRIC POWER: Hydro
power is electricity generated from the potential energy of hydrological
systems. The force of flowing water from a river or existing dam
is used to drive an electricity generator. Although hydroelectric
energy is renewable and produces no greenhouse gases, there may
be ecological and even social problems arising from the construction
of new large dams. (See RENEWABLE ENERGY) (MP)
HYDROGEN: Hydrogen
is the lightest element, has atomic number one, and consists of
one proton and one electron. The hydrogen gas molecule is highly
flammable and consists of two covalently bonded hydrogen atoms.
Isotopes of hydrogen are deuterium and tritium, with one and two
neutrons respectively. Water is composed of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom. Hydrogen can be a source of power, ranging from
the hydrogen fusion bomb to automobile fuel. (See HYDROGEN BOMB,
ELEMENT) (MP)
HYDROGEN BOMB: Uses the nuclear fusion process to release vast amounts of energy.
As extremely high temperatures are required for the process to occur,
these temperatures are obtained by an atomic bomb around which the
fusion material is arranged to initiate the process involving hydrogen
isotopes deuterium and tritium (see ATOM BOMB, NUCLEAR FISSION,
NUCLEAR FUSION). (IP)
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE: See
WATER CYCLE.
HYPERACTIVITY:
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a behavioral
syndrome characterized by inattention and distractibility, restlessness,
inability to sit still, and difficulty concentrating on one thing
for any period of time. ADHD is most common in children, and is
three times more common in males than in females ,and occurs in
approximately 3 to 6 percent of all children. Although behaviours
characteristic of the syndrome are evident in all cultures, they
have garnered the most attention in the United States, where ADHD
is the most commonly diagnosed childhood psychiatric disorder. It
was not until the mid-1950s that American physicians began to classify
as “mentally deficient” individuals who had difficulty paying attention
on demand. Various terms were coined to describe this behaviour,
among them minimal brain damage and hyperkinesis .
In 1980 the American Psychiatric Association (APA) replaced these
terms with attention deficit disorder (ADD). Then in 1987
the APA linked ADD with hyperactivity, a condition that sometimes
accompanies attention disorders but may exist independently. The
new syndrome was named ADHD. (DM)
HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA: is an inherited abnormality resulting in sustained high blood-cholesterol
levels, leading to premature death from heart diseases. (JA).
HYDROSPHERE:
refers to the layer of water which nearly envelopes the Earth,
in the form of oceans and inland seas. (see BIOSPHERE & LITHOSPHERE)
(IP)
HYPERTHERMIA :
Excessive high body temperature accompanied by quickening of the
pulse and disturbance of other bodily functions. Maybe caused by
physical environmental conditions or fever inducing pathogens. (See
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE) (IP)
HYPNOSIS: (Greek hypnos 'sleep')
an altered state of mind or consciousness likened to daydreaming,
yoga, zen and transcendental meditation but also apart from these
owing to the hypnotic trance's 'anesthetic' powers where it becomes
possible for doctors to perform surgery on their patients without
the use of other analgesics. The remarkable powers of hypnosis were
recognized and used to treat illness, disease and pain removal for
over 3,000 years until the early Christians drove it into oblivion
because they feared its force and misunderstood its source; thus,
attributed the practice to the work of supernatural beings. Today
hypnosis is recognized as a safe, albeit strange, aid in the practice
of medicine, dentistry and psychology. (See HYPNOTHERAPY) (IP)
HYPNOTHERAPY:
(Greek hypnos 'sleep' + therapiea 'treatment') the
treatment of disorders with the aid of hypnosis. Hypnotherapy takes
advantage of the unique characteristic of the unconscious mind in
which suggestions are not only more readily accepted than in the
waking state but are also acted on much more powerfully than would
be possible under normal conditions. Hypnotherapy, when practiced
by doctors specifically trained in its use, has been approved by
the principal medical associations of many western countries including
Britain, Australia and the United States, and also in many eastern
bloc countries, particularly the former Soviet Union where it has
been traditionally an integral part of the health care system. While
the hypnotherapist guides the patient into their trance, it's the
patient's own thoughts and unconscious mind that undertakes the
healing process. Given the overall success rates of hypnotherapy,
one has to compare this with the adverse side-effects and possible
dangers of many prescribed pharmaceuticals, particularly when taken
over extended periods of time. Unfortunately, however, pronounced
drug addiction does not respond perfectly to hypnotherapy - perhaps
due to the process of addiction itself which affects the unconscious
mind so profoundly. (See HYPNOSIS) (IP)
HYPOCHONDRIA:
From the Greek for abdomen (thought to be the seat of melancholy),
hypochondria is an obsessive preoccupation with one’s health and
morbid false sensation and expectation of disease. (See MEDICAL
INFORMATION DIRECTORIES, SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY) (MP)
HYPOCRISY:
Hypocrisy is the promotion of moral values which are contrary
to the real character, standards and behaviors of the hypocrite.
For a long time a cause of public disillusionment, hypocrisy has
commonly been alleged against commercial, political and religious
institutions. Hypocrisy on the part of the advocator or deliverer
of moral advice cannot be used as a valid argument against the advice
itself. Nevertheless, the person who practices what they preach
is more likely to be heard than is the hypocrite. (See HYPOCRITE)
(MP)
HYPOCRITE:
The hypocrite promotes and pretends certain values and behaviors
but is unwilling or unable to live up to these standards. (See HYPOCRISY)
(MP)
HYPOTHESIS: Supposition open to refutation. Knowledge, especially in SCIENCE
(q.v.) largely accumulates by the testing of hypotheses which
leads to some being rejected and others accepted. (MR)
HYPOXIA:
(Greek hypo 'deficient' + oxys 'sharp' + genein
'to produce') Inadequate oxygen supply at the cellular level.
If the supply of oxygen is inadequate for aerobic cellular metabolism
energy is provided by less efficient anaerobic pathways that produce
toxic metabolites. The tissues most sensitive to hypoxia are the
brain, heart, pulmonary vessels, and liver. Despite the evolution
of adaptive mechanisms for the effective transport of oxygen, the
fetus is still at risk when the oxygen level in the uterine environment
falls. It has been suggested that oxygen deprivation may be responsible
for more than 30% of the deaths of all stillborn infants and a major
cause of intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR). (ASPHYXIATION,
INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION). (IP)
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