UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "I"s

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency.

IATROGENIC: (Greek: iatros 'physician' + genein 'to produce')  Caused by medical treatment, diagnostic procedure or exposure to the environment of a health care facility. (IP)

IBN SINNA: (known in Latin as Avicenna) 980-1037 ce. Scholar, philosopher and physician. Ibn Sinna was the author of "al-Qanun" (Canon of Medicine), a comprehensive text on a wide range of medical topics. This text is central to the Unani system of medicine. (AG)

ICBM: The Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) is a land-launched missile able to carry conventional or nuclear warheads, usually with a range between 5500 and 20,000 kilometers, for example Russian 'SS-18' and US 'Peacekeeper' missiles. (See MISSILES, SLBM, MIRV, CRUISE MISSILE) (MP)

ICC: International Criminal Court.

ICE-MINUS (ICE-): A bacterium lacking a functional gene coding for a protein that promotes the formation of ice crystals by providing a physical nucleus around which ice crystallizes. The gene has been deleted from strains of Pseudomonas syringae, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Erwinia herbicola. (DM)

ICE-PLUS (ICE+): A bacterium with an intact, functional ice-nucleating gene. (DM)

ICSI: Intracytoplasmic sperm injection, first used in 1993, has become the most powerful tool available to the reproductive andrologist for the treatment of severe male infertility. By means of ICSI, fertilization and pregnancies can be obtained with sperm recovered either from the ejaculate, or from the epididymis, or from the seminiferous tubules, irrespective of whether spermatogenesis is normal or deficient and irrespective of whether the underlying pathophysiology is understood or not. Biologically selected barriers which prevent abnormal gametes from penetrating the zona pellucida of the oocyte are low density, poor structure, abnormal or weak motility, immotility and dysfunctions at the level of binding with the zona. Some of these factors are now circumvented by sperm micromanipulation in conjunction with IVF technology. The technique involves injecting one sperm directly into the ooplasm of the ovum. Because ICSI needs only one sperm in order to fertilize an oocyte, most subfertile and infertile men; that is, men with either no spermatozoa in their ejaculate (azoospermia) or very few spermatozoa in their ejaculate (extreme oligozoospermia) can now father a child. However, the safety of micromanipulation and assisted fertilization technologies is of concern. So far the majority of babies conceived as a result of ICSI seem healthy, but it is too early to determine the long-term consequences; particularly in relation to the potential reproductive capacity in the sons of sub- and infertile men. (See ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES) (IP)

ICHTHYOLOGY: (Greek: ichthyo- "fish" + logos "reason") The scientific study of fish. Ichthyologists examine the physiology, ecology, behavior and classification of fish life. (MP)

ICZM: Integrated Coastal Zone Management.

IDEA: 1. A unit of information that represents an experience, feeling, or memory of perception of things physical or abstract, sensed or intuited, real or imagined.  2. A result of processing such units of information, alone or in combination with others. (See BEHAVIOUROME) (RW)

IDEALISM: The belief that ideals can be achieved, even if this does not seem likely to others. The belief in philosophy that objects in the world are ideas which only exist in the mind of God or people who see them. (DM)

IDEAS PRODUCTION: New ideas are often the combination of existing ideas or concepts, residing for example in the regions between established definitions or disciplines. New properties and possibilities emerge when actions, tools or memes are analyzed, merged or extended. Methods for the production of ideas include concept comparisons/combinations, conjunction of words, metaphor/metonymy, brainstorming sessions, stream of consciousness, lateral thinking, meta-analysis, recognition of patterns, deductive reasoning and creative inspiration. (See BRAINSTORMING, LATERAL THINKING, METAPHOR) (MP)

IDENTICAL TWINS: See TWINS/TWINNING.

IDENTITY: On the individual level: The feeling of being one self. Although identity is multi-dimensional and often heterogenous, it is characterized as a feeling of being “one”, a idthink we are, it also emerges from drawing a boundary from what we are NOT, or what we do not WANT to be. On the collective level (“collective identity”), identity is a seat are the raison d´etre of the group. (BP)

IDENTITY CRISIS: An identity crisis arises when our feeling of being one inseparable entity is challenged or even being overthrown. This can manifest in not knowing who we are, where we belong to, or what we are not. In regard to collective identity, a crisis can emerge if the common grounds that hold a group of people (a family, a congregation, a nation) together are unclear, challenged, changing at a rapid pace. (BP)

IDEOLOGY: The term ideology was first used during 18th century Enlightenment, referring to a philosophical pursuit more closely related to its literal meaning - the ‘study of ideas’. Ideology tod ideas (which may also have some validity). Ideologies often end with an “ism”; for example capitalism, rationalism, liberalism, socialism, communism, anarchism.  (See WORLDVIEW, PARADIGM) (MP)

IGNORANCE: Ignorance implies total lack of knowledge or understanding of the system or process under consideration, or even the very existence of the relevant element. We can’t study or understand what we don’t know about. Widespread individual ignorance and apathy are enormous hindrances to the spread of positive community action and ethical value systems. (See INDETERMINACY, UNCERTAINTY, UNKNOWABLE, APATHY) (MP)

IIED: International Institute for Environment & Development.

IISD: International Institute for Sustainable Development.

IISS: International Institute for Strategic Studies.

ILLUSION: An idea or belief which is not true, or something that is not really what it seems to be. (DM)

ILO: International Labor Organization.

IMF: See INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND.

IMMORTAL: Living forever. (MR)

IMMUNE SYSTEM: An extensive system that protects the body against pathogenic organisms and other foreign bodies. Lymphocytes which develop from stem cells in the bone marrow are associated with the protection of the body against foreign materials or antigens. There are two types of lymphocytes - the T-lymphocytes activated by the thymus gland and the beta-lymphocytes activated in the main in lymphoid tissues. When an activated T-lymphocyte encounters antigens they develop specific protective(in conjunction with phagocytes) of the specific antigen, and memory cells that multiply and remain in the lymphoid tissue passing on their latter is called cell-mediated immunity. beta-lymphocytes are activated by microbes ase while the memory cells confer humoral r cells and antibodies. In summary, theres T cells to mobilize tissue macrophages in the presence of a foreign body. (See IMMUNITY, AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE, DEPRESSED IMMUNE RESPONSE, JENNER, EDWARD. (IP)

IMMUNITY: (Latin immunis 'free'). The state of being protected against contagious agents. Immunity may be acquired naturally or artificially and both forms may be active or passive. Active immunity means that the individual has responded to an antigen and produced suitable antibodies. In passive immunity the individual has been given antibodies produced by someone else.
Active artificially acquired immunity develops in response to the administration of dead or artificially attenuated (weakened) microbes (vaccine) or detoxicated toxins (toxoids) which retain the antigenic properties to stimulate the development of immunity but they cannot cause the disease. Many bacterial infections are preventable by immunization like cholera, diphtheria, measles, mumps, poliomyelitis, smallpox, tetanus, tuberculosis, whooping cough. Active immunization against some infections confers life-long immunity; for example, diphtheria, whooping cough, mumps while in other infections the immunity may last for a number of year or for only a few weeks before revaccination is necessary. Age and nutrition are important in establishing and maintaining good immunity. In the elderly and when nutrition is poor the production of lymphocytes, especially beta-lymphocytes, is reduced resulting in an inadequate immune response.

Passive naturally acquired immunity is acquired before birth by the passage of maternal antibodies across the placenta to the fetus. The variety of different antibodies provided depends on the mother's active immunity. Passive immunity is reinforced after birth by antibody-rich collostrum in beast milk. Passive immunity is short-lived but acts as a good protection during the neonatal period when the infant is most vulnerable.

Passive artificially acquired immunity is acquired when ready-made antibodies in human or animal serum are injected into the recipient. The source of the antibodies may be from an individual who has recovered from the infection, or animals, commonly horses, that have been artificially actively immunized. Antiserum is administered prophylactically to prevent the development of disease in people who have been exposed to the specific infection, or therapeutically after the disease has developed. (See IMMUNE SYSTEM, AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE, DEPRESSED IMMUNE RESPONSE, JENNER, EDWARD) (IP)

IMMUNIZATION: See IMMUNITY.

IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION: Contraception using immunological barriers to contraception, e.g. anti-sperm antibodies. (DM)

IMMUNODEFICIENCY: The state of sub-standard expression of the immune system.

IMMUNOGLOBULIN: protein synthesized by the mature B lymphocytes to fight antigens. Immunoglobulins (Ig) are made up of two heterodimers, consisting of a light and a heavy chain. The assembly of these chains give rise to five classes of immoglobulins (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG and IgM) and several subclasses of IgA and IgG. There are two types of light chains, called kappa and lamda, and nine types of heavy chains. The IgG class comprises either gamma 1 (gamma 1 for the IgG1 subclass), gamma 2 (IgG2), gamma 3 (IgG3) or gamma 4 (IgG4) chains; the IgA1 subclass has alpha 1 and the IgA2 alpha 2 heavy chains. The other classes have delta (IgD), epsilon (IgE) and mu (IgM) chains. The variability of the recognition site for the diverse antigens lies in the N-terminal portion, also called the variable region, both of the light and heavy chains. The C-terminal region is called the constant region, since it is almost identical from one antibody to the other within the same class or subclass. (see also ANTIBODY) (GK)

IMMUNOSUPPRESSION: That state of inhibiting the expression of the immune system.

IMPACT: An effect or change caused by some factor, for example a social or environmental impact which improves or deteriorates the wellbeing of people or ecology. Impacts may be positive or negative, primary (direct) or secondary (flow-on effects), immediate, gradual or delayed, may produce feedback, reinforce each other’s momentum, act in combination (additive or multiplicative), may be dependent on limits or thresholds, be measurablACT, EFFECT, CAUSATION) (MP)

IMPERIAL UNITS: The system of measurements based on the yard and the pound that is still used in the United States of America. (See METRIC UNITS). (IP)

IMPLANTATION: The process by which the fertilized oocyte (zygote) becomes attached to the wall of the uterus (endometrium). It commences in the seventh day or human embryo development, and is completed by day 14. (DM)

IMPRINTING: When an event or experience becomes fixed in someone's memory or marked in some way on their appearance. In genetics, the DNA may be marked in a particular way to turn the expression off. (DM)

IMPOSSIBILITY: See LIMITS, INFINITY.

IN-BUILT REDUNDANCY: See PLANNED OBSOLESCENCE.

IN UTERO GENE THERAPY: In the 1990s scientists developed a technique in mice in which foreign DNA was transported intravenously to the developing embryo in utero . It was found that the maternal blood flow effectively transported the DNA through the placenta, opening up the way for somatic in utero gene therapy. These advances are significant because they foreshadow the use of in utero gene transfer in humans where specific target organs; such as the lung in the case of cystic fibrosis, could be targeted for therapy with the advantage of arresting the genetic defect before it can severely damage target tissues and organs in affected children. The major hazard of somatic gene therapy, as with all experimental treatments, is that things could go wrong. The development of human fetal gene therapy, however, carries many more complex moral and ethical questions not least the issues of deliberate, or accidental, targeting of the germ-line cells with physiological/psychological consequences on future generations of children.  Technical advances in germ-line genetic modification in unscrupulous hands raises the disconcerting issue of eugenics and designer babies. (See SOMATIC-CELL GENE THERAPY; GERM-LINE GENE THERAPY) (IP)    

IN VITRO: Literally "in glass"; pertaining to a biological process or reaction taking place in an artificial environment, usually a laboratory. Referring to a process or reaction carried out in a test tube or culture disk Like carrying out fertilization in a test tube. (DM, JA)

IN VITRO EXPERIMENTS: Experiments carried out on tissue/cells/eggs/sperms samples separated from living animals. (Lit = in glass). (JA)

IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF): A technique of medically assisted conception (sometimes referred to as "testtube" fertilization) in which mature oocytes are removed from a woman's ovary and fertilized with sperm in a laboratory. (See EMBRYO TRANSFER, EDWARDS, STEPTOE, LOUIS BROWN).

IN VIVO: Literally "in the living"; pertaining to a biological process or reaction taking place in a living cell or organism. The process carried out in human body itself. (JA, DM)

IN VIVO EXPERIMENTS: (Lit = in life) Experiments that are carried out on living animals. (JA)

INCOME: Money that is earned from doing work or received from investments. Income is a demographic factor that influences many social factors and health outcomes. (DM)

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: In statistics, the variable or attribute acting as a reference and which is thought to affect or influence the dependent variable. (See VARIABLE, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE ) (MP)

INDETERMINACY: Indeterminacy is where the scientific or social context is not sufficiently understood to allow an answer to a problem to be determined. Knowledge may be conditional on the validity of uncertain assumptions or axioms, or the system may be too complex and have insufficient models and monitoring. (See IGNORANCE, UNCERTAINTY, UNKNOWABLE, VERIFICATION) (MP)

INDEX: 1. One of the most important sections of reference works, the index is an alphabetical listing at the back of the subjects, concepts and memes contained within and page references for easy access. (See READING) 2. In statistics, an index is a measure created from the combination of two or more variables. (See VARIABLE, SCALE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX) (MP)

INDEX OF SOCIAL HEALTH: An aggregated measure of sustainable social well being and progress. The Index of Social Health was developed by Marc Miringoff at the Fordham Institute in New York (1996). It combines estimates of the following into a single score: infant mortality, child poverty, child abuse, teenage suicide, drug abuse, alcohol-related traffic fatalities, homicides, high school dropouts, unemployment, weekly wages, food stamp coverage, health cover, housing access, elderly health costs, elderly poverty and the gap between rich and poor. (See GENUINE PROGRESS INDICATOR, GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

INDICATOR: An element or measure which has additional interpretive meaning beyond the measurement itself. (See ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS, INDICATOR SPECIES) (MP)

INDICATOR SPECIES: A species which plays a fundamental role in the ecosystem and is able to be monitored as a proxy indicator of broader environmental health. The species must be ecologically appropriate and representative, including its abundance, distribution, taxonomy, habitat specificity and life strategy. Appropriate choices of indicator species also include those with known sensitivity to particular pressures, those with pre-existing information and cross-regional comparability, and those which allow practical non-destructive sampling. Major examples include the defining habitat vegetation and any keystone species. Over-emphasis on species-level indicators is warned against however, as biodiversity concerns a range of biological scales from genes, through species, and on to the most important unit for conservation management ecosystems. (See ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS, KEYSTONE SPECIES, BIOLOGICAL SCALES) (MP)

INDIGENOUS: (Latin indigena in + gen be born) Belonging naturally in an area; native, intrinsic, innate, not introduced. (IP)

INDIGENIZATION: The process and trend of popular return to previous cultural practices or beliefs, including re-affirmation of indigenous values and resurgence of religious faith. Indigenization is often a reaction in counterbalance to perceived encroachment of Western values, consumerism, relativism and power. Religious resurgence, often urbanized, strong-minded and anti-secular, is sometimes expressed at the introduction of new democracy to a country. During times of change people want the emotional and social support religion provides. Indigenization is not a rejection of modernization or development, but rather resistance against the globalization of culture. (See WESTERN DECLINE, MODERNIZATION, GLOBALIZATION, COLONIALISM) (MP)

INDIRECT PROOF: See PROOF.

INDIVIDUAL SELECTION: See GROUP SELECTION.

INDIVIDUALISM: Freedom, liberalism or the ethic of self-actualization. The idea that freedom of thought and action for each person is the most important quality of a society, rather than shared effort and responsibility. (DM)

INDUCTION: A form of reasoning from individual cases to general ones, or from observed instances to unobserved ones. For example, inductive reasoning may follow thus: 'if this species is not endangered, that species is not endangered ... therefore all species are not endangered'. Obviously, in this case the conclusion is not true even if the premises are. (See DEDUCTION) (IP)

INDUCTIVE REASONING: The process of discovering a general principle by reasoning from a set of facts. (DM)

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS: The relationships and agreements between workers, unions, management and employers, including wage agreements, collective bargaining and workers" rights. (MP)

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: Originating in the wind and wheel-power of medieval times, the Industrial Revolution began in earnest with the invention of steam power in 18th century England. Using steam, coal, electricity and machines, the age of large-scale mechanized industry had begun. Industrialization and mass-production techniques spread across the globe transforming the way humans live, from concrete and conveyor-belts to manufactured goods and motor vehicles. The Industrial Revolution also brought into being mass-resource extraction, industrial warfare, factory labor and sprawling urban landscapes. (See INFORMATION REVOLUTION, INDUSTRIALIZATION, INDUSTRIAL WARFARE) (MP)

INDUSTRIAL WARFARE: The Industrial Revolution spawned production-line efficiency in the development of bulk weaponry. The resulting commercial distribution and large scale of "industrial warfare" led to the massive death toll of the two World Wars and most wars since. The folly of industrial warfare is epitomized by the nuclear bomb and other weapons of mass destruction. It seems obvious that industrial warfare can leave no real winners if belligerent nations are willing to exchange civilian death, psychological damage, economic loss and environmental destruction. Ironically, the warfare of the future will be aimed at stabilizing the proliferation of these dangerous industrial warfare technologies and methods. For us to survive our own technology, future wars must always have the aim of peace, with information the challenging-ground rather than physical bombing of societies and ecologies. (See INSTITUTION OF WAR, PEACEKEEPING) (MP)

INDUSTRIAL UNION: An organization that represents the people who work in an industry, protects their rights, and discusses their pay and working conditions with employers. (DM)

INDUSTRIALIZATION: Steadily increasing national development of industries such as resource extraction, processing, production, manufacturing and construction. Countries should be aware that extensive industrialization comes with environmental and cultural costs and may not be a sustainable or sensible long-term strategy. (See INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES, URBANIZATION) (MP)

INFANT BIOETHICS COMMITTEE: A committee which prescribes guidelines neonates (new born) with disabilities are provided with comfort. Many neonatologists face had situations and make difficult and disturbing decisions. The committee provides ethical solace in such situations. Its other functions include: 1. "Education of staff and parents on relevant ethical principles and provision of literature and resources. 2. Policy development and establishment of ethical principles. 3. Prospective review through consultation in cases being considered for selective non-treatment and resolution of disagreements among staff and families, and 4. Retrospective review of relevant medical records to determine the appropriateness of hospital policies and whether these polices are being followed". (JA).

INFANT MORTALITY: the statistical rate of infant death during the first year of life expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 live births in any specified geographical area in a given period. Neonatal mortality (death within 28 days of life) accounts for approximately 70% of infant mortality. (See SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME) (IP)

INFANTS: In the USA the age designation for humans 1-23 months old. (DM)

INFANTICIDE: The crime of killing an infant child. Sometimes related to gender discrimination when it is one particular gender that is killed. (DM)

INFER: To imply, or draw a conclusion from assumptions based on the implications of the evidence. (See INFERENCE) (MP)

INFERENCE: Reasoning which relies on correlation between two things, such that characteristics or implications of one are assumed also in the other. For example, inference from the part to the whole. (See INFER, STATISTICAL INFERENCE) (MP)

INFERTILITY: Inability of a couple to conceive after a long period (e.g. 12-24 months) of intercourse without contraception. A condition in a beings where they are not able to bear a progeny, defective sperm/ovum/reproductive system (see social infertility). According to WHO a failure to conceive after at least two yeas of unprotected intercourse, it encompasses both sterility and sub-fertility, it is about 10% in industrialized countries (see SOCIAL INFERTILITY). (JA)

INFERTILITY TREATMENT: Many types (See ART) including hormonal, IVF, development of many embryos, one emplanted in uterus, others frozen/discarded/researched. (JA)

INFIBULATION: See FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION.

INFINITY: Endless. Among the entities thought of as infinite have been God, the universe, time, the points on a line, the set of all natural numbers, etc. The Indian philosopher, Sri Aurobindo, criticized monotheistic religions on the ground that they deny the infinity of God. By dictating only one concept of God, they actually limit God. Polytheistic religions, he argued, are more faithful to God's infinity by recognizing that God's greatness can only be approached through many gods, i.e. many different concepts of God, or many different ways in which God appears. (FL)

INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL: Restraints on behavior that are exerted through social pressure, for example, through mores, folkways, conventions, or public sentiment. (DM)

INFORMATICS: The study of the application of computer and statistical techniques to the management of information. In genome projects, informatics includes the development of methods to search databases quickly, to analyze DNA sequence information, and to predict protein sequence and structure from DNA sequence data. (See BIOINFORMATICS) (DM)

INFORMATION: Patterns or sequences of data organized in a way such that they have meaning in some system or process (e.g. DNA, computer programs). The opposite of information is "noise", or randomly sequenced data. (See DATA, KNOWLEDGE, INFORMATION THEORY) (MP)

INFORMATION OVERLOAD: A glut of information such that effective analysis and decision-making are made more difficult. Information overload is a typical characteristic of the internet. (MP)

INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY: A descriptive term whose usage has declined where instant access to information has become normal and commonplace. The information superhighway is a metaphor illustrating the vast volumes of data and information able to be summoned across the internet and other electronic media channels. (See INFOSPHERE, INTERNET, CYBERSPACE) (MP)

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT): Computer technology for the production, storage, manipulation and communication of information. Most commonly framed within a business context, information technology may also be usefully applied to environmental management. (See KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING) (MP)

INFORMATION THEORY: Mathematical and other theories concerning the nature of information and its recognition from noise, and the carrying capacities of different channels of communication. (MP)

INFORMED CONSENT: Informed consent can be coerced, but the principle of Autonomy (q.v.) would demand that it be freely given by patients in all cases of treatment or medical experimentation. Hospitals frequently demand that patients sign informed consent forms before receiving treatment, but it may be questioned whether the purpose is to uphold the ethical rights of the patient, or rather to protect the hospital in case of legal proceedings for error. The right to informed consent can be overridden if the patient's life or health are in clear and immediate danger and the patient is temporarily or permanently incompetent to decide for oneself. There are many difficult borderline cases in pediatric, psychiatric, geriatric and emergency medicine. It can be questioned whether any patient in a state of pain, fear or emotional pressure can really give free informed consent. The devices of advanced directives and living wills (q.v.), have been legalized in some countries in order to allow one to give or deny informed consent in advance of becoming incompetent. (FL)

INFOSPHERE: (Information + Sphere) The infosphere is the collected data and information in cyberspace and different forms of media from which resources for research, decision-making and human knowledge can be drawn. It is ultimately information which illustrates and determines how energy acts upon matter in the course of the Earth’s progress. (See NOOSPHERE, INTERNET, CYBERSPACE, BIOSPHERE, ANTHROPOSPHERE, COLLECTIVE MEMORY) (MP)

INFRASTRUCTURE: The basic systems and services, such as transport and power supplies, that a country or organization uses in order to function. (DM)

INHERITANCE: Genes that you receive from your parents. Also money or objects that someone gives you when they die. (DM)

INHERITED DISEASE: See HEREDITARY DISEASES.

INHIBITORY: In biochemistry, compounds which block the action of enzymes. Inhibition may be either reversible or irreversible. (IP)

INJUSTICE: occurs when some benefit to which a person is entitled is denied without good reason or when some burden is imposed unduly. (JA)

INSANITY: (Latin in 'not' + sanus 'sound'). Unsound or disturbed mental functioning - mental illness. Was formerly equated with psychosis but is now a medico-legal term signifying a person who is unfit to plead in a court of law. Causes if insanity maybe twofold or a combination of both: 1. Organic disorders of degenerative or hereditary etiology; such as schizophrenia, forms of dementia and 2. affective disorders which include psychoneurosis characterized by severe depression, anxiety and drug abuse. Insanity is not a simple condition or concept because the etiology is almost always multifactorial; that is, part genetic part socio-cultural where the individual's metabolic-hormonal characteristics adversely interact with environmental factors. (See PSYCHOSIS; DEMENTIA). (IP)

INSECURITY: Insecure people lack confidence and are uncertain about their own abilities and about whether other people really like them. People may also have financial insecurity when they are not sure they will have the money for the future. (DM)

INSECTICIDE: A poison that kills insects. Include inorganic salts arsenicals, DDt- organochlorines and organophosphates hormones/pheromones and biological control, Integrated Pest management measures. (JA)

INSECTITICIDAL PROTEIN:

INSEMINATION: See DONOR INSEMINATION, DI, AID.

INSTINCT: An innate (inborn) usually stereotyped behavioural response to one or more environmental stimuli. So, for example, even blind babies smile when pleased. In fact, though, practically all human behaviour, even if it has an instinctive component, is at least partly under its owner's control. (MR)

INSTITUTION OF WAR: a form of collective, institutionalized violence driven by planned strategies that maintain the structure of war. Aggression during wartime is termed institutionalized violence because, unlike individual aggression, it is driven by a diversity of carefully planned strategies that maintain the structure of war. By institutionalizing war the hideousness of military conflict is not legislatively forbidden, as is infanticide, child abuse, torture, murder, rape and other forms of barbaric aggressive behavior during peacetime. On the contrary, these acts become pervasive cultural factors influencing the acceptability and aggrandizement of war. All cultures have sanitized war atrocities in fiction, art, film and the Internet; and warriors have always been glorified in secular and religious propaganda. Proof of the short-term profitability of war is everywhere, for example, the 1990s have seen more than 20% of the world’s  qualified scientists and engineers engaged in military research, while annual global military expenditure had exceeded worAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER). (IP)

INSTITUTIONAL BIOSAFETY COMMITTEE (IBSC): A committee in an institution to examine biosafety concerns. A competent authority constituted by an occupier or any persthe Institution, Scientists engaged in DNA work, a medical enuals/guidelines of the RCGM and make available copies to thS COMMITTEES). (JA, DM)

INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD: Sometimes called "IRB" or "Helsinki Committee", this is a body established by an institution -- a university, hospital, ministry of health or of science, a private or corporate industry, etc -- to review activities and proposed activities within the institution and to ensure that they meet certain ethical, scientific, or professional standards. A committee which supervises ethical and scientific quality of activities, especially research, within an institution. They usually deal mainly with human and animal experimentation, but environmental IRB's might also be considered. In order to avoid conflict of interest the committee should have members from outside the institution.

Sometimes hospitals and other institutions appoint people whose job it is to approve or disapprove proposals to conduct research within the institution, where the purpose is ensure that embarassing facts are not discovered and published. Such people simply protect the self-interest of the institution and are not to be confused with IRB's. Hospitals and medical schools might have one IRB to oversee experimentation with human subjects, and another one to oversee animal experimentation.

It is difficult to establish an IRB with no conflict of interest whatsoever, because people who have sufficient scientific expertise to serve on the committee might naturally have an interest in seeing research proceeding unhindered. It is important, therefore, to include at least some non-professionals on the committee. (See HELSINKI DECLARATION) (FL)

INSTITUTIONALIZED PERSONS: Persons who stay in institutions such as prisoners, mentally sick persons, aged persons. There are concerns about how freely they can express consent. (DM)

INSTRUMENTAL VALUE OF NATURE: The allocation of value to ecosystems and the natural environment as a reflection of the products and services they provide towards human activity and wellbeing. The instrumental value of nature is a rather more concrete concept for economists than any intuitively-derived intrinsic values. Even denying the environment its own inherent moral value, instrumental value alone should be sufficient to engender careful conservation and stewardship. (See INTRINSIC VALUE OF NATURE, ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION, USE VALUE, OPTION VALUE, BEQUEST VALUE) (MP)

INSULIN: See DIABETES MELLITUS.

INSURANCE: To insure is to protect yourself against risk by regularly paying a special company that will provide a fixed amount of money if you are killed or injured or if your home or possessions are damaged, destroyed or stolen. Insurance is an agreement in which someone pays a company money and they pay costs if the insured person/group have an accident, injury, etc. (DM)

INTEGRATION: to bring together segregated social communities into equal membership of the whole of society. It is essential in any integration program that due recognition is given to the cultural settings in which kinship obligations, ethical values, religious beliefs, recreation may differ from the traditions of the wider community but are part of the whole community’s  heritage. Tolerance and acceptance of difference is a social ideal which is often broken to a lesser or greater extent; for example, in the Australian Abori speaking their indigenous language and had to conform to European ways. (IP)

INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT: Integrated management is handling, direction and control which takes into consideration a broad spectrum of potentially relevant or affected components of the environment including physical, ecological, social, cultural and economic factors. This outlook requires a wide-ranging view (large spatial scales), a long-term outlook (large temporal scale) and an integrated or holistic perspective (broad conceptual scale). Such vision is often lacking in the two most powerful global management entities; for example corporate management focuses too closely on economic values, and political management has a short-term election-based outlook. Integrated management recognizes the connectedness of human activities and natural processes, and necessarily involves multidisciplinary cooperation. The increased complexity is however justified by favourable outcomes and benefits to sustainability. Socio-cultural requirements for integrated management include community dialogue and public participation taking into account the opinions and concerns of all relevant parties, sectors and stakeholders such as indigenous people, local residents and land users. Ecological considerations include recognition of the connections among species, ecosystems and bioregions, for example the continuity between terrestrial and marine environments. Management should consider secondary impacts or flow-on effects, and be at the scale of whole bioregions, ecosystems or catchments, unrestricted by political boundaries. (See BIOREGIONALISM, TOTAL CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE) (MP)

INTEGRITY: 1. the quality of being ethical, virtuous, and consistent; 2. wholeness, completeness. (RW)

INTELLECT: In many philosophies, the soul is said to consist of the emotions, on one hand, and the intellect on the other. The intellect is responsible for pure, abstract, rational thought. Aristotle (q.v.)believed that the gods, and Maimonides (q.v.) believed that God and the angels (q.v.) are purely intellectual beings which love and look after us to the extent to which we exercise our intellects. Modern neurobiology is raising the question whether our intellectual activities are performed by a spiritual soul or can be explained in terms of the workings of a physical brain. (FL)

INTELLECTUAL: Pertaining to thought, or an intelligent thinking person. The intellectual often likes ideas and debate, and although may be a trained expert in a particular field, can spiral off into varied broad subjects. The responsibility of the public intellectual is to highlight injustice and show social leadership. (See EXPERT) (MP)

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY: That area of the law involving patents, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets, and plant variety protection (see INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS). (DM)

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS: the primary purpose for creating intellectual property rights is to provide an incentive for creating new inventions (see INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY). (DM)

INTELLIGENCE: Intelligence refers to the ability of the mind to handle and process information. Human intelligence is made up of a number of capacities, including logical deduction, reasoning, inference, analogy, abstract thought, perception, comprehension, memory, creativity, learning from experience, application of knowledge, problem solving, recognition of importance and adaptability of response. In addition, there are multiple recognized types of intelligence, including verbal, logical, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and emotional intelligences. This diversity illustrates the difficulties inherent in the measurement of intelligence. The intellectual environment of the young determines whether they are able to reach their genetic potential for brainpower. Of course humans are not the only intelligent agents on the planet, with various animal and artificial intelligences having different comparative strengths and functions. (See INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)

INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT: Controversial age-adjusted quantitative measure of intellectual performance. An IQ of around 100 is average. Much of the controversy has centred around the extent to which IQ is genetically determined (see EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, GENETIC DETERMINISM).(MR)

INTELLIGENT AGENT: An autonomous software program or expert system which independently carries out its own specialized task or service. An intelligent agent may for example collect information of certain criteria from the internet, or learn to filter news or advertising according to user habits and preferences. (See EXPERT SYSTEM, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)

INTELLIGENT SYSTEM: See ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS, EXPERT SYSTEM.

INTENSIVE CARE UNITS: Hospital units providing continuous surveillance and care to critically ill patients. (DM)

INTER-: Combining prefix from Latin inter meaning ‘between’, ‘among’. (See INTRA-, META-, MULTI-, PRE-, POST-, TRANS-) (MP)

INTERACTION: Includes communication or inter personal contact between investigator and the subject between two or more persons. Private information includes information about behavior that occurs in a context I which an individual can reasonably expect that no observation or recording is taking place and information which has been provided for specific purposes by an individual and which the individual can reasonably expect will not be made public e.g. the patients" medical record. (JA)

INTERCONNECTEDNESS: See CONTINUUM. 

INTERDICTION: 1. Law: A legal act or decree which commands, prohibits, forbids etc., culturally connected to Roman Law and interdiction as practiced by the Roman Catholic Church. 2. International Relations: Forceful disruption, isolation or interception, for example military interdiction of enemy movements or supply lines, or coast guard interdiction of planes or ships suspected of carrying contraband or illegal arms. (MP)

INTERDISCIPLINARY: (Inter- "between") An issue or approach which bridges between disciplines or across professions. Often new ideas or problems may be found in the less-explored regions between established areas of academic knowledge, and usually ethical and sustainable development issues require involvement of more than one profession. (See MULTIDISCIPLINARY, TRANSDISCIPLINARY, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT) (MP)

INTERFERING WITH NATURE: A common objection to much modern BIOTECHNOLOGY (q.v.), especially GENETIC ENGINEERING (q.v.), is that it interferes with nature. This then raises the issue as to when interfering with nature is good and when it is not. Few people argue that all instances of interfering with nature (e.g. the prevention of diseases through sanitation and vaccination) are bad, though what precisely is 'natural' is itself open to controversy. (MR)

INTERFERON: There are a number of types of these proteins in the body which are produced by cells as a reaction to infection by a virus. (DM)

INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY: Equity between generations is one of the central defining principles of Sustainable Development. The ability of future generations to meet their needs should not be compromised by the actions of the present generation. (See INTRAGENERATIONAL EQUITY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

INTERLEUKINS: Protein messengers between leukocytes in the body, some of which are also now made by genetic engineering for therapeutic use. (DM)

INTERMEDIARY: Someone who carries messages between people who are unwilling or unable to meet. (DM)

INTERNAL MEDICINE: The branch of medicine concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the internal organ systems of adults. (DM)

INTERNATIONAL BIOETHICS SURVEY: A survey conducted by Darryl Macer and colleagues in 1993 in different countries about ordinary citizens opinions and ideas when answering bioethics dilemmas.  It introduced the field of descriptive bioethics. Results are in the book Bioethics for the People by the People (Eubios Ethics Institute, 1994). (DM)

INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: With 120 nations voting for its Rome 1998 statute, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was open for business in 2002. Many of the indictments against Americans for actions during the Afghanistan and Iraq wars have been deflected by their non-recognition of the ICC. (See INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW, GENEVA CONVENTIONS, HAGUE TRIBUNAL, NUREMBERG TRIALS, JUST WAR THEORY, JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, GENOCIDE, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY) (MP)

INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW: A synthesis of current potentially enforceable international human rights regulations. This synthesis aims at an acceptable system of 'universal' laws which find a non-culturally relative balance, for example between individualist and collectivist global value systems. The international element was added to law with the Nuremberg Charter after the horrors of World War II. Many of the philosophical values behind international human rights law are outlined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948 accompanied by the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide. Attempts at the regulation of war have tried to restrict justification for the resort to war, and failing that, to restrict the conduct of war. International war law found expression in the Geneva Conventions (1949) and Protocols (1977). Numerous UN Conventions and International Human Rights Treaties have since been widely signed, but have proven relatively toothless as international law without ratification into national laws and broad political subscription to specific treaties. The USA has had a poor record in this, requiring a two-thirds Senate majority for ratification. With international humanitarian law so difficult to enforce amongst the myriad treaties, national laws and truth commissions, a global legal system was required to deal with universal human values and horrifying war crimes. To this end the Hague War Crimes Tribunals (1993) and International Criminal Court (2002) have been established. Current and upcoming trials will also trial these institutions, and serve as some of the first strong legal disincentives for world leaders whose power creates war or suffering. (See INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, HAGUE TRIBUNAL, ETHNIC CLEANSING, HAGUE CONVENTIONS, GENEVA CONVENTIONS, LIEBER PROTOCOL, NUREMBERG TRIALS, CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY) (MP)

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF): Is a UN specialized agency, founded at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 to secure international monetary cooperation, to stabilize currency exchange rates, andto expand international liquidity - access to hard currencies. (DM)

INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION: The International Space Station is the current and future operational version of previous space stations such as the Soviet MIR (1986-) and the first US space station Skylab (1973-79). An example of global cooperation and friendship, it serves as an example of the use of space for peace and international benefit. (See SPACE EXPLORATION) (MP)

INTERNATIONAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: Movement of inventions and technical know-how across national borders.

INTERNET: What became the Internet was originally developed as ARPANET by the US Pentagon’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), discontinued in 1990 to give way to computers, hierarchically nested into an international telecommunications systetext links. The material composition of the Internet is really only hardware forFTWARE, VIDEO CONFERENCING, VIRTUAL REALITY, CYBERSPACE, CYBERIA) (MP)

INTERNET ADDICTION: See GAMBLING ADDICTION.

INTERNET AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE: See INTERNET, TELEVISION AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE.

INTERNET PRIVACY: If your computer is connected to the internet, then the internet can, with a little know-how, also look inside your computer. Various intranets, firewalls, encryptions, virus detectors and other security software try to keep the back-door closed and your activities confidential. But the web is littered with personal data, and spy software can collect traces of internet information. The integration of mobile phones with internet functions has brought chat-room predators a step closer. New connectivity and processing power has also ignited citizen privacy issues in relation to government security, corporations and ‘Big Brother’. (See HACKER, BIG BROTHER, CYBER CRIME, INTRANET, FIREWALL) (MP)

INTERPROFESSIONAL RELATIONS: The interaction of two or more professionals from the same or different fields. Related issues include medical etiquette, and the physician nurse relationship. (DM)

INTERSPECIES FERTILIZATION: Fertilization usually occurs within the same species, but it is sometimes possible for fertilization to occur between gamtes of different species.  Usually the embryos formed in that way will not develop. (DM)

INTERVENTION: Includes both physical procedures by which data are gathered (e.g Venipuncture) and manipulations of the subjects" environment that are performed for research purposes. (JA)

INTRA-: Combining prefix from Latin intrā meaning ‘within’ (sometimes used in opposition to either inter ‘between’ or extra ‘outside of’). (See INTER-, META-, MULTI-, TRANS-) (MP)

INTRACYTOPLASMIC SPERM INJECTION: see I.C.S.I.

INTRAGENERATIONAL EQUITY: Equity among those within the current generation. The economic benefits and environmental impacts of development are often not distributed fairly between nations or within them. It has been noted that the central concept of Sustainable Development - a fair go for future generations - should hold equally for the current generation. Intragenerational equity is therefore a hypothetical goal of sustainability which addresses these injustices of resource distribution. (See INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

INRANET: An internal web servicing an organization, similar in function to the Internet but not accessible from it. Corporate data, business plans, research agendas and meetings are conducted and stored within the confines of their intranet. Intranet architecture often allows internal users access to the Internet, but is protected from outside penetration by firewalls. (See FIREWALL, INTERNET PRIVACY, TRANSPARENCY) (MP)

INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD): Contraceptive device inserted through the cervix into the uterine cavity. The origin of the IUD dates back to antiquity when Arabs used to prevent conception in their saddle camels on long journeys by introducing a round smooth stone into the uterus; the camel then repulsed the advances of the male as if she were pregnant. The first generation of modern IUDs, designed and produced in the late 1950s, were unmedicated devices produced following the development of the biologically inert plastic polyethylene. During the 1970s medicated or bioactive IUDs were developed which carried substances such as metallic ions (copper acting as a spermicide) or hormones. These medicated devices were developed to reduce the incidence of side effects and to increase their contraceptive effectiveness. (See CONTRACEPTION). (DM, IP)

INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION (IUGR): is the most common term used to refer to the results of inadequate growth in the fetus. Another way is to describe the uterine growth-retarded infant as being small-for-gestational age, or small-for-dates which means a birth weight below the 10^th percentile of intrauterine growth curves in general 2,500 g or less. In general, the lowest risk of neonatal death and the greatest likelihood of optimal physical and intellectual development is in children 3,000 g or more at birth; thus, normal intrauterine growth is considered a good marker for fetal wellbeing with the same being true for postnatal growth. A large body of information exists about factors associated with low birthweight, and the population most likely to be "at risk" many of the determinants relate to the helplessness engendered by vicious poverty cycles and include elements of physical and psychological stress. (See ADDICTION, PREMATURITY, SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME). (IP)

INTRINSIC: belonging inherently to some thing by the very nature of its existence. Biodiversity is becoming an intrinsic component of the ethical debate; thus the ability for humankind to value the innate may prove to be one of the very keys to long-term survival. (IP)

INTRINSIC VALUE OF NATURE: Placing value and importance on ecosystems and physical environments which is completely independent of human experience. At the farthest end of the deep ecology spectrum, nature is considered priceless. For example, biodiversity has survival merit independently of whether or not it has cultural relevance or contains components useful to humans. (See INSTRUMENTAL VALUE OF NATURE, ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION, BEQUEST VALUE) (MP)

INTRODUCED SPECIES: An exotic species which has arrived, often thrived, in a foreign environment. Introduced species may successfully compete with native species by invading habitat and ecological niches. Examples which resulted in damage to Australian ecosystems include the rabbit, fox, cat, cane toad, fire ant, lantana, bitou bush, water hyacinth, camphor laurel, many garden plants, plantation pines and for that matter most crops. It is a costly path once an introduced species has arrived, and for that reason Australia has a good quarantine system. Biological control has been semi-successfully used, for example myxomatosis and calcivirus against rabbits. With biological control care to avoid suffering (sterility control is better), and undue interactions with other parts of the ecosystem (the cane toad was originally envisioned a biological control!) Introduced species may not necessarily be pest species, depending on their amenity or impact. Debate continues over the divide between animal rights advocates and environmentalists on the issue of introduced species. (See PEST SPECIES, BIOLOGICAL CONTROL, CANE TOAD) (MP)

INTRONS: The DNA sequences interrupting the protein-coding sequences of a gene that are transcribed into mRNA but are cut out of the message before it is translated into protein. Compare exons. (DM)

INVASION DAY: A revealing colloquial term for public celebrations such as Australia Day (January 26) which commemorates first European arrival in 1788, Columbus Day (October 12) commemorating European arrival in America in 1492, Indonesian Invasion Day in East Timor (December 7) or similar anniversaries in other countries. The term is used by those in sympathy with the Australian Aboriginals, Amerindians and other indigenous peoples, for whom the beginnings of the destruction of their way of life is no reason to celebrate. (MP)

INVENTION: An original device, contraption, or process developed after study and experiment. Genetically engineered animals, plants, and micro-organisms have been recognized as patentable forms of biological invention in the United States, but this is not always the case in other countries, especially where animals are concerned. (DM)

INVERTEBRATE: An animal lacking a backbone. (RW)

INVESTIGATIONAL DRUGS: Drugs which have received US FDA approval for human testing but have yet to be approved for commercial marketing. These include drugs used for treatment while they still are undergoing clinical trials. (DM)

INVESTIGATORS: A US term for professionals engaged in biomedical or behavioral research.

INVOLUNTARY COMMITMENT: Civil commitment to an institution such as a hospital for the mentally sick. (DM)

INVOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA : The killing of a patient who is suffering or is afflicted with an incurable disease or condition, for reasons of mercy, without that person's consent (See EUTHANASIA) (DM)

INVOLUNTARY STERILIZATION: Sterilization performed without the consent of the patient. (DM)

IONOSPHERE: refers to the region of the upper atmosphere generally above 50 km up which is in a state of significant ionization. (see BIOSPHERE & OZONE HOLE) (IP)

IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

IQ: See INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT.

IRB: See INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD.

IRRIGATION: The supply of water to arigricultural fields and paddies. (RW)

ISEP: International Society for Environmental Protection.

ISLAM: (from the Arabic root s.l.m., meaning "submission to the will of God"). Initially, this term was applied in a generic sense to those who submitted to the will of God. Thus, Abraham and various other Biblical characters are referred to in the Quran (see Quran) as professing Islam. Later, the term became more specified, referring to those who accepted the Quran and the prophecy of Mohammed in addition to the basic submission to the will of God. The most sacred text of Islam is the Quran. The Hadith (see Hadith) collections also contain important traditions and customs of Islam. The religious duties of Islam include: prayer, giving of charity, pilgrimmage to the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. (AG)

ISLAMIC BIOETHICS: A religious framework based on Islamic jurisprudence, dealing with ethical issues associated with biosciences ( see bioscience)such as beginning and end of life, reproduction, genetics, organ transplantation, environment, newly emerged problem resulted from new scientific and technological procedures and discoveries. According to Islamic bioethics making decision has to be based on cooperation of the specialists on the field and Islamic jurists, Faqih (see FAQIH). (AB)

ISLAMIC MEDICINE: It can be defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that was inherited by the Muslims physicians. It begun with the translation of Unani (see Unani) medicine from Greek in to Arabic, mostly from Hippocrates (460-377BC)and Galen 8 131-210 AD). At that time Arabic was the religious and scientific language in the Islamic countries. In the history of Islamic medicine that age (8th -9th centuries), is called "Translators age", simultaneously the "golden age" of Islamic medicine emerged which was developed to the extend that replaced the Unani medicine.
The Muslim physicians had studied Unani medicine in enriching it by giving their own remarks based on their experiences and views as well as taking in to consideration health recommendation expressed by in Islamic sources such as Quran and Hadith. Medical practice in the Islamic civilization had never been as a mere profession ,but was connected to theology, philosophy and ethics. Among those who made valuable contributions, Al-Razi(625 AD) and Ibn Sina (1037 AD) are the most prominent for establishing Islamic medicine foundation. (AB)

ISOLATED STORAGE: Storage of a hazardous chemical substance , other than storage associated with an industrial installation on the same industrial complex. (JA)

ISOTOPE: An isotope is one of the different varieties of a particular chemical element. Isotopes differ from one another by the number of neutrons in the nucleus, and have differing physical properties. Some but not all isotopes of an element may have an unstable nucleus and be prone to radioactivity. (See ATOM, ELEMENT, HYDROGEN) (MP)

IT: See INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY.

ITERATIVE PROCESS: A method by which progress is in a stepwise fashion with new depth and detail of information added and incorporated at each stage. (See HEURISTICS) (MP)

IUBS: International Union of Biological Sciences.

IUCN: The World Conservation Union (a.k.a. International Union for the Conservation of Nature & Natural Resources).

IUD: see INTRAUTERINE DEVICE.

IUGR: see INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION.

IVF: See IN VITRO FERTILIZATION.

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