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BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "L"s
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LABELING:
See STIGMATISATION.
LAMARCKISM: Theory of evolution in which organisms produce offspring with adaptive
characteristics as a direct result of their own environments. So,
for example, a person of average musical ability as a child who
then became a professional musician would be expected to have children
of above average musical ability. Classic experiments in the early
twentieth century dealt a blow to Lamarckianism. In these experiments
mice had their tails cut off for generation after generation. Yet,
contrary to what Lamarckianism would predict, each generation of
mice was still born with normal tails. Some biologists think that
Lamarckianism may still be important in certain circumstances but
Darwin's alternative theory of natural selection is almost universally
held to be correct. (See DARWIN) (MR)
LA NINA-SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON:
refers to the warm ocean current that blows along the northern tropical
coast of South America in its stabilizing phase. La Nina refers
to "the child" of constancy as opposed to El Nino "the Child"
of change (see SOUTHERN OSCILLATION INDEX & EL NINO -SOUTHERN
OSCILLATION PHENOMENON). (IP)
LAND DEGRADATION: The
decline in integrity, fertility and usefulness of the land, usually
as a result of human mismanagement. This reduction in land quality
has impacts on both human utility such as farm productivity, and
ecosystem utility such as the ability to maintain biodiversity.
Common forms of land degradation include water and wind erosion,
salinization from over-irrigation or land clearing, soil acidification
from overuse of fertilizers, habitat and vegetation destruction,
chemical contamination and pollution, landslips and other soil loss
or movement, decline in soil structure from stock trampling, soil
compaction from heavy equipment, and loss of soil fertility due
to excessive agriculture. (MP)
LAND
MINES: Land mines are anti-personnel bombs laid covertly across
the landscape to wait for a passer-by to trigger their deadly explosive
charge. They stand out from other weapons by being non-discriminatory
– equally devastating to a civilian as a combatant, and long-lasting
– usually long beyond any cease in hostilities. Land mines are a
majoSomalia, but have been typically manufactured by rich countries
such as the US, UK, Russia, France and China. Recent air-released
mines have euphemistically been termed ‘cluster bombs’. Eminent
personalities have crusaded against land mines, including Tibet’s
Dalai Lama and Britain’s late Princess Diana. A of the Use, Stockpiling,
Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction.
(See EXPLOSIVES, CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS, DISARMAMENT, NON LETHAL WEAPONRY)
(MP)
LAND
RIGHTS: See NATIVE TITLE LEGISLATION - AUSTRALIA.
LANDSAT:
Any of a series of land-observing satellites useful for civilian
land-use mapping, resource assessment, and measuring habitat destruction
and other environmental data. The first satellite was launched from
the US in 1972 under the Earth Resources Technology Satellite project,
a program renamed ‘Landsat’ in 1975. A ‘Seasat’ satellite for monitoring
of the oceans has also been in existence. Landsat has operated with
a non-discriminatory ‘open skies’ policy, despite broad similarities
with spy satellites which have applications to military intelligence.
(See REMOTE SENSING, LAND USE, SPY SATELLITES) (MP)
LAN
ONG: (1720-1791) Vietnamese physician. His major work is "Hai
Thuong y tong tam linh" (Treatise on Medical Knowledge Accumulated
by Hai Thuong). This work contains an encyclopedic range of medical
information, based both on Chinese and Vietnamese sources. Lan Ong's
work also includes descriptions of 722 plant species and their medicinal
applications. (AG)
LAO-TSE: (Lao-zi in pinyin spelling)
Author of the text Daodejing (Tao Te Ching). The text itself
is from the 3rd cent., but the teachings contained in it are more
ancient. In this book, Lao-Tse focuses on concepts of non-action,
and nothingness in an attempt to understand the complexity of the
universe. (See
TAO TE CHING)
(AG)
LAPAROSCOPY: Direct
visualization of the ovaries and the exterior of the fallopian tubes
and uterus by means of a laparoscope (a long, narrow, illuminated
instrument) introduced through a small surgical incision below the
navel, to evaluate any abnormalities. Surgical procedures may also
be performed using this method. (IP)
LASER
TECHNOLOGY: (Abbreviation of ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation’) The production of monochromatic high-intensity
beams WEAPONS) (MP)
LASER WEAPONS: The
laser weapon has long been a staple of science fiction spacecraft,
but fortunately has had limited attention in real-world military
deployment. Nevertheless, blinding lasers have been commercially
available, and can blind temporarily or permanently depending on
how they are used and whether the victim is wearing vision enhancement
equipment. Blinding lasers have been discussed in the ethical context
of non-lethal weaponry, however the horror of deliberately causing
blindness is debatably at similar depths of inhumanity as killing
humans outright with bombs. An ‘X-Ray Laser’ has been targets. (See
NON-LETHAL WEAPONRY, SPACE WEAPONS, MISSILE DEFENSE) (MP)
LATE
ONSET DISORDERS: Disorders that normally become symptomatic
in adult life. (JA)
LATERAL
THINKING: Producing ideas by thinking ‘outside the box’, or
along an alternate tangent of thought to the traditional ‘high probability’
train of ‘vertical’ literal thinking. A term developed by Edward
de Bono, lateral thinking can be induced by looking at a problem
from many points of view, reversing components of an idea, ‘working
backwards’ from an option/srational reasoning. (See PO, BRAINSTORMING,
REASONING) (MP)
LAW:
The science or philosophy of law; or, a legal system. (See CONSTITUTIONAL
LAW, CRIMINAL LAW, CONTRACTS) (DM)
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: The principle that the
total energy of a system cannot change unless energy is taken from
or given to the outside. Thus the law states that the total energy
- resting mass energy + kinetic energy + potential energy - of a
closed system remains constant; that is, the total value of a particular
physical or living system is conserved. Earth is a closed system,
therefore, the idea of perpetual growth, as in consumerism or human
population growth, is a losing strategy overall. Therefore, excessive
wealth generates excessive poverty, excessive land use generates
excessive land degradation. (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (IP)
LD50: Dosage
of a chemical compound which will result in the death of 50% of
test animals given the compound. (AG)
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: describes
the behavior of an individual - human or animal - who has learned
that an outcome is independent of his or her reaction. For example,
if a dog is subjected to captivity it has no control over, it rapidly
gives up any attempt to escape even when the possibility to escape
becomes available. The condition has profound emotional and physical
effects and the loss of control over external events, in some circumstances,
may also produce an overall powerlessness. Ironically, the belief
that one has lost control over ones fate and is in a helpless situation
may be more imagined than real as there are distinctions in the
ways individuals view uncontrollable distressing events. Some believe
that life's rewards are to be found internally while others rely
more on external events provided by others or chance happenings
(see WELLBEING, HOPE and ALLOSTASIS). (IP)
LEEUWENHOEK, ANTON
VAN.:
A pioneer in the development of microscopes during 1700s and contributed
much to the study of food chains and population. (JA)
LEGAL GUARDIANS: Individuals empowered by law to make decisions concerning the welfare
of persons considered legally incapable of acting on their own behalf,
such as minors and mental incompetents. (DM)
LEGISLATION:
In a modern state, the mode of establishing rules (laws, regulations)
by parliaments. Democratic theory distinguishes between legislative
powers, executive powers (the government), and jurisdiction. (BP)
LEGALISM:
The position that ethical action consists in strict conformity
to law or rules; cf. antinomianism, rules of practice, situationalism.
LEIBNIZ, BARON GOTTFRIED WILHELM VON: (1646-1716)
German mathematician and philosopher, he conceived the idea of "possible
worlds". There are infinitely many possible worlds, and God created
the best of them all: this world. In his play, Candide, Votaire
satiricized the idea that a world which contains as much tragedy
as our world contains can have been chosen by an all-good God as
the "best of all possible worlds". (FL)
LEOPOLD
MATRIX: A large matrix of environmental elements/characteristics
in horizontal rows and potential environmental impacts in the vertical
columns. For each policy option, the potential impacts are estimated
for each element by indicating a ‘magnitude’ and ‘significance’
score in eaeopold and others in 1971 and is still commonly used
in Environmental Impact Assessment. (See ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT,
MATRIX METHODS) (MP)
LEPTIN:
(Greek lep"tin thin) A hormone which controls adiposity
by signaling the brain’s satiety center in the hypothalamus
to stop eating, to eesult of faulty leptin receptors. (IP)
LEPTON: (Greek: leptos "thin" or "peeled") Leptons, along with quarks
and their respective antiparticles, are the irreducible components
of matter. Leptons are simple elemental particles including electrons
and neutrinos. (See QUARK, QUANTUM MECHANICS) (MP)
LESBIAN/ISM: the
homosexual love between two women[in ancient Greece lesbianism was
termed trivodismos derived from the verb trivo to rub]. In western
mythology, lesbian love had its origins on the island of Lesbos
(the homeland of the famous poet Sappho) where friendships between
women were at a more developed stage. Sappho was the first to make
"Sapphic love" - expressing and cultivating other interests outside
the home. The innovation within the then male dominated society
of having yearly beauty contests, where female athletes competed
in their sector for their own honor along similar lines to the Olympic
Games, was established in Lesbos. It is said that Sappho was to
young women what Socrates was for his male students (see SAPPHO
OF LESBOS). (IP)
LESS
DEVELOPED COUNTRY: Another phrase in the search for a politically-correct
description of not so wealthy nations, the Less Developed Country
is synonymous with the ‘Third World’, ‘South’ or ‘Developing Nations’.
(See DEVELOPING NATIONS, SOUTH, THIRD WORLD, FOURTH WORLD) (MP)
LETHAL:
Causing or able to cause death, as in lethal dose (toxins)
or lethal radius (explosives). (MP)
LEUKOTOMY: literally
"cutting the white matter", a neurosurgical procedure in which the
nerve fibers in the bundle of white matter in the frontal lobe of
the brain’s cortex are cut in order to interrupt transmission,
thereby isolating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the cerebral
cortex; that is, the frontal lobes cease to play any part in the
patient’s life. White matter is the term used for the fiber
connections between groups of brain cells and in this case the nerve
connections between the frontal lobes and the rest of the brain
are severeth a wire loop passed through the bony orbit of the eye.
The procedure is adopted for the treatment of an extended variety
of mental disorders; particularly violence, personality disorders,
intrace depression and pain. The operation was developed by a Portuguese
neurosurgeon, Egaz Moniz (1875-1955), who heard of an experimental
procedure whereby legions of the front part of the brain supprd
"neurotic" behavior in monkeys. At a time when brain function was
little understood and drugs for severe psychiatric conditions were
not available, leukotomy was considered - right up until the s -
to be a more humane treatment to calm down severely agitated and
aggressive patients. Other routinely used alternative treatments
for mentally ill patients included straitjackets, isolation inked
padded cells, or insulin injections to induce comas. The procedure
is seldom performed these days because, while in many cases it does
make the patients calm, it also has many undesirable effesuch as
personality change including aggression, other socially unacceptable
behavior, incontinence, apathy and complete lack of motivation.
(see FRONTAL LOBE; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY AND SEROTONE-UPTAKE
INHIBITORS) (IP)
LEXICOGRAPHY: The attempt at discovery, definition and description of the meanings
of words, such as in the writing or compilation of a dictionary.
A dictionary or encyclopedia is a snapshot of the current range
in an evolutionary passage of memes, a reflection of language, culture
and philosophy. For example, in Jean-Luc Godard’s dystopian
science fiction film Alphaville, future society has replaced
the Bible with a socially-conforming dictionary but one without
any entry for the word "conscience". (See DEFINITION, MEME,
SEMIOTICS, CONSCIENCE) (MP)
LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES: are
intended to be neutral systems in which the citizens can believe
and value whatever they wish within the rule of law. This model
has proved immensely successful (see LIBERAL UTILITARIANISM) in
some places, although in others, eg German social democracy, it
was less successful.
LIBERAL
UTILITARIANISM: Owing to the short-comings of libertarianism,
communitarianism and socialism, liberal utilitarianism has evolved
and been embraced by some of the most successful democracies such
as Denmark and other Nordic European countries who have advanced
policies based on both liberal and egalitarian principles. Liberal
utilitarianism states that individuals should be left free to make
their own choices provided that the consequences of their decisions
are not likely to have an adverse effect on the basic needs of others.
The distinguishing feature between liberal utilitarianism and libertarianism
is that in the former other people's needs are taken fully into
account in ethical and political decision-making. For example, affluent
libertarian nations are not obliged to donate food to nations in
need since they do not recognize an obligation to share their wealth
with others, but nations who have taken on liberal utilitarian ideals,
are obliged to help because they recognize individual and collective
responsibilities towards others. In health care policy, for example,
liberal utilitarianism stands for an extensive system of socialized
medicine, accompanied with a passionate respect for the autonomy
of patients and other users of the services; that is, democracy
in this model stands for both concern for the wellbeing of the population
and consideration towards the privacy and freedom of individuals.
(See UTILITARIANISM; LIBERTARIANISM ; COMMUNITARIANISM; SOCIALISM;
DEMOCRACY) (IP)
LIBERTARIANISM:
An ethical and political philosophy which promotes that the citizens
appoint for themselves a governing body which is entitled and obligated
to protect the rights of its citizens to liberty, life, health and
private property without the illegitimate interference of others.
Within the libertarian model, those in government should not take
any redistributive measures; that is, they should not collect taxes
from one group of citizens and then spend it on services which satisfy
the needs of another group. Interpreting this within the health
care sector, for example, it means that the state should not arrange
any kind of socialized medicine, and that health care services ought
to operate primarily on the principles of the free market, and secondarily
on the basis of charity. Medical legislation is needed only to protect
individuals against fraudulence and malpractice. The implication
is that ethical choices should be left almost exclusively to those
who pay for the services rendered by health care professionals and
biomedical research groups. For example, if an individual wants
to have a particular contraceptive, an abortion, or a specific surgical
procedure, this choice is limited only by his/her finances and by
the capacity to find a physician offering these services. On the
other hand, if the executives of a business enterprise endeavor
to develop new gene-splicing techniques, they are free to proceed
provided that they do not unduly threaten another's life, liberty
or property in the process. (See LIBERAL UTILITARIANISM; UTILITARIANISM;
COMMUNITARIANISM; SOCIALISM; DEMOCRACY) (IP)
LIBERATION:
Freedom from something that inhibited or oppressed a person.
(See FREEDOM, LIBERTY) (DM)
LIBERTARIANISM: See
FREEDOM, LIBERTY.
LIBERTY: Free to do what one likes.
(DM)
LIBRARY: A collection of clones in no obvious order whose relationship can
be established by physical mapping. Compare genomic library .
(DM)
LICHENS: (Greek:
leikhen "licker"). Lichens are organisms formed by the symbiotic
association of a fungus, forming the vegetative body, and either
cyanobacteria or unicellular algae undergoing photosynthesis. Lichens
are often seen as green, gray or yellow crust-like forms growing
flush on rocks or tree-trunks. The symbiotic combination functions
so effectively that lichens flourish in some of the harshest environments
on earth such as the extreme cold and aridity of Antarctica. They
are however very sensitive to air pollution since they cannot excrete
toxic substances. Lichen die-back has been used as an effective
biological indicator of rising pollution levels (see INDICATOR SPECIES,
SYMBIOSIS) (MP & IP)
LIEBER CODE: Perhaps
the first expression of modern military law, the Lieber Code, or
Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in
the Field, was compiled by Franz Lieber for Abraham Lincoln in 1863.
(See HAGUE CONVENTIONS, GENEVA CONVENTIONS, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN
RIGHTS LAW, CLAUSEWITZ) (MP)
LIES: Honesty, openness and reasons (containing truth) are distinct from
lies, which include dishonesty (deliberate untruth), excuses (dubious
correlation to truth), exaggeration (embellished truth), euphemism
(covert truth), bluff (implied truth), white lies (minor untruth),
black lies (serious untruth) and secrecy about issues relevant to
another (withheld truth). (See HONESTY, OPENNESS, SECRECY, EUPHEMISM,
POLITICS) (MP)
LIFE: The self-reproducing capacity of living organisms is the best-recognized
characteristic of life, but the continuum between life and non-life
has a shifting borderline depending on the inclusiveness of the
definition. The originally recognized qualities of life were birth,
growth and death. This requires the extraction of energy from the
environment for metabolism, nourishment and healing, followed by
its relinquishment during death and decay. A mystical or spiritual
component was also considered necessary to activate the living,
a "vital force" which elevated life from inanimate matter. The Darwinian
revolution highlighted other defining capacities of life: replication,
adaptation, variation, heredity, and evolution by natural selection.
Complexity theory added another characteristic; life displays complex
system behavior such as high levels of organization and emergent
properties. Modern biochemistry has further narrowed the definition,
with the fact that life as we know it contains molecules acting
as a genetic "program", the DNA blueprint. Further, there is a general
reluctance to relinquish the organic status of life, which is founded
on carbon based compounds in an aqueous medium. However, such a
definition of life may be too narrow, since it appears probable
that life exists in other parts of the universe, and possible that
other bases such as silicon may equally provide the characteristics
of origin, energy use, inner program, replication, adaptation, heredity,
complex behavior and evolution. (See ARTIFICIAL LIFE, ALIEN LIFE,
BIODIVERSITY, EXTINCTION) (MP)
LIFE
CYCLE: The passage or ‘ontogeny’ of an i reprodureproductive
bout), iteroparity (energy conserved for return bouts), survivorship
curves (reverse of mortality) and fecundity schedules (reproductive
timing). (See ONTOGENY, AGE DISTRIBUTION) (MP)
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a method used in environmental science,
industrial design and commercial research. LCA is a model which
examines the impacts of a product through its life cycle from extraction,
transport, manufacturing and marketing through to use and disposal.
(See ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT, PRESSURE/STATE/RESPONSE MODEL, ENVIRONMENTAL
FLOWS) (MP)
LIFE
EXPECTANCY: See HUMAN IMMORTALITY, LIFE EXTENSION.
LIFE EXTENSION: The
development or use of techniques for retarding the process of aging.
(See LIFE EXPECTANCY, HUMAN IMMORTALITY) (DM)
LIFE INSURANCE: Insurance
that will pay a benefit to family or appointed persons upon the
insured person's death. In many countries it is necessary in order
to obtain a mortgage or bank loan. (See GENETIC DISCRIMINATION)
(DM)
LIGHT
YEAR: A unit of distance in space, defined as the distance light
can travel in one year (9.46055 x 1015 meters). Alpha
Centauri, the star closest to our Sun, is about 4.5 light years
away. (See ASTRONOMICAL UNIT) (MP)
LIKERT SCALE: A
common survey method developed by R Likert in 1932 for measuring
respondent attitudes towards a certain question or satisfaction
with a particular decision or state of affairs. The Likert scale
is typically a three, five or seven-point scale such as ‘strongly
agree’, ‘agree’, ‘undecided’, ‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree’.
The question and the items on the scale must be designed to represent
only one continuous dimension of the problem. (MP)
LITTORAL: (Latin: littorālis
‘shore’) Existing on or pertaining to a shore; the shoreline
environment of a lake, river or sea. (MP)
LIMBIC
SYSTEM: first used by the French anatomist Paul Broca in 1878
to describe that part of the brain surrounding the brain-stem and
lying beneath the neocortex. It includes the hippocampus, olfactory
regions, hypothalamus and amygdala. Functionally, the limbic system
is concerned with 1. visceral processes maintaining homeostasis
2. monitoring emotions particularly ones associated with fear, anger,
fight and flight 3. adaptive integration of behavioral response
patterns essential in the development of social and nurturance skills.
(See BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS; DOPAMINE) (IP)
LIMBO: In Catholic teaching,
an alternative place for souls which are neither in heaven nor in
hell. The two primary reasons for souls to be in Limbo are: a) souls
of those who died before the arrival of Jesus. These souls did not
have the benefit of Jesus' sacrifice, and so, they are in Limbo,
because even though they may have been righteous, this is still
not sufficient for their entry to heaven. b) souls of infants and
unborn children who did not commit any sin themselves, but did not
receive the benefit of Jesus' sacrifice either. (AG)
LIMITING FACTOR: An
element of a process which acts to restrict the rate, magnitude
or quality of an outcome. In chemistry, the rate-limiting factor
holds up the flow of a chemical reaction. In ecology, limiting factors
which control populations may be density-dependent limits (e.g.
carrying capacity limitations such as food, predation and shelter)
or density-independent limits (factors unrelated to population,
e.g. weather, hazards, environmental disruption). (See LIMITS TO
GROWTH, LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE) (MP)
LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE: See CARRYING CAPACITY, LIMITS TO GROWTH.
LIMITS TO GROWTH: A 1972 book edited by Donella Meadows and Dennis Meadows, and published
by the Club of Rome, that projected the future results of trends
in population, industrialization, resource depletion, food production,
and pollution. The primary conclusion was that if these trends continue,
then rapid declines in population and industrial capacity are likely
to result. The publication of this book stimulated both the environmental
movement and business-as-usual interests, and it remains controversial.
(RW)
LIMNOLOGY: (Greek: lÌmno "lake"+ logos "reason") The scientific
study of fresh water, such as the geography and ecology of lakes
and streams. (MP)
LINGAM: From Sanskrit, the lingam refers to the penis or masculine gender,
sometimes represented in Hindu phallic images or statues. (See YONI)
(MP)
LINGUA FRANCA: A medium used for communication between people of different languages,
commonly 'World English'. A pidgin is a type of localized lingua
franca, and Esperanto was an attempt at a global lingua franca.
(See PIDGIN, ESPERANTO, MULTIMODAL COMMUNICATION, TRANSLATION SOFTWARE)
(MP)
LINGUISTICS: Linguistics, originally known as philology, is the scientific study
of languages, including vocabulary, grammar, style, phonetics, semiotics,
lexicography, linguistic evolution, artificial languages, translation,
the philosophy of language and the relation of these to human thought
and behavior. Linguistic relativity/determinism is the idea that
the characteristics of a language dictate cultural and world outlook.
Biological linguistics investigates language in relation to human
evolution, child development and neurological processing. Psycholinguistics
studies language in relation to memory, attention, comprehension
and mental health. Sociolinguistics investigates language as a reflection
of social function and cultural diversity. A linguist is a person
who studies the structure of language and/or is able to speak and
translate multiple languages. Famous philosophers of linguistics
include Saussure, Bloomfield and Chomsky. (See LEXICOGRAPHY, DEFINITION,
ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES, PIDGIN, SEMIOTICS, SEMANTICS, EUPHEMISM, TRANSLATION
SOFTWARE, MULTIMODAL COMMUNICATION) (MP)
LINKAGE: The
proximity of two or more markers (e.g., genes, RFLP markers) on
a chromosome; the closer together the markers are, the lower the
probability that they will be separated during meiosis and hence
the greater the probability that they will be inherited together.
(DM)
LINNAEUS, CAROLUS: (1707-1778)
Swedish naturalist. Linnaeus established the system of taxonomy
for plant species in Species Plantarum (1753) and for animal species
in Systema Naturae (1758). He served as a professor of botany at
the University of Uppsala, and ten years after his death, the Linnaean
Society of London was established to continue his work on taxonomy
of plant and animal species. (AG)
LITERACY RATE: The
proportion of a population that read and write. (DM)
LITHOSPHERE: Refers
to areas of the surface of the Earth not covered by water. (see
BIOSPHERE & HYDROSPHERE) (IP)
LITHIUM: (Greek
lithos "stone") A most reactive silver-white metal.
Its salts; such as lithium carbonate, are effective in stabilizing
recurrent manic-depressive cycles, although its mechanism of action
by which they help return homeostatic flexibility to emotional behavior,
is not clear. Mood-stabilizing drugs are essential modern tools
in the long-term management of manic depression (or bipolar illness),
and lithium carbonate was the first drug to be discovered with therapeutic
properties. Since lithium is not effective in all who suffer bipolar
illness, during the 1980s a group of drugs already successful in
the treatment of epilepsy - the anticonvulsants - have become a
valuable addition to its treatment. The usefulness of lithium in
mania was serendipitously discovered in the late 1940s by John Cade,
an Australian psychiatrist. While seeking a toxic agent in the urine
of psychotic patients, Cade combined lithium with uric acid to make
the latter more soluble in water in order to inject the compound
into guinea pigs who, in turn, became very quiet without falling
asleep. By an intuitive leap, Cade decided to give lithium salts
to several agitated and manic patients who were under his care.
One of the first patients Cade treated had been in the hospital,
chronically manic, for five years, yet within three weeks he was
" enjoying the unaccustomed and quite unexpected amenities of
a convalescent ward" , and after three months he was so improved
that he left the hospital to return to work and to his family. This
extraordinary discovery has revolutionized the pharmacological treatment
of manic-depressive illness and lithium salts are now used widely
across the world. However, the toxicity of lithium in high doses
to the heart and kidney is of concern, and there are also other
adverse side-effects such as stomach upsets and hand tremors. In
common with the anticonvulsants, lithium reduces the excitability
of the neuron, probably by changing the dynamics of the ions passing
back and forth through the membrane wall. In addition, lithium alters
the balance among the neurotransmitter operating systems of the
limbic system, strengthening the serotonin messenger system which
is important in preventing depression. Manic depression is the most
predictable recurrent mood disorder. Approximately 95% of those
who suffer mania will experience recurrent manic or melancholic
episodes throughout their lives, and before discovery of lithium
many became irretrievably ill. (see DEPRESSION; UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION;
BIPOLAR DEPRESSION; BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS, SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE
INHIBITORS; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; LIMBIC SYSTEM) (IP)
LIVE ABORTED FETUS: When an aborted fetus is alive, in many countries ff doctors wish
to perform experiments legally they must seek statutory authority.
Some consider it is a person, no matter how short the period of
gestation and using it for an experiment would in law be at least
an assault upon it. (JA)
LIVE DONOR: A term used to refer
to a person who remains alive after donating part or all of an organ,
e.g. one kidney or part of a liver, to another person. (DM)
LIVING: A
recognition of the self-reproducing capacity of alive organisms.
LIVING DICTIONARY: A living dictionary is a dictionary which is never finished. Its
authors hope to keep adding, deleting and improving entries for
many years to come. Readers are invited to take part in this process,
submitting new entries or additions or revisions to old ones. In
this way a living dictionary can continue forever. The idea of a
living book, with no limit to its size, its changes or the number
of its authors, recognizes the limitations of human intelligence
and the fact that knowledge is never finished, but can always grow
and improve. This dictionary is a living dictionary. (FL)
LIVING MODIFIED ORGANISMS: The term used to refer
to living Genetically Modified Organisms in the Cartegena Protocol
of the Biodiversity Convention. (See CARTEGENA PROTOCOL OF THE BIODIVERSITY
CONVENTION, GMOs). (DM)
LIVING RELIGION: A
self-regulated set of behavioral mores.
LIVING WILL: Written,
witnessed declarations in which persons request that if they become
disabled beyond reasonable expectation of recovery, they be allowed
to die rather than be kept alive by extraordinary means. (see advanced
directives). (DM, +IP+FL)
LMOs: See LIVING MODIFIED ORGANISMS.
LOBOTOMY: See LEUKOTOMY.
LOCAL KNOWLEDGE: See
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE, PUBLIC OPINION.
LOCKE, JOHN: (1632-1704)
English physician, political theorist and philosopher. He is thought
of as the father of liberal democracy, urging in his "Letter Concerning
Toleration" a free society where all beliefs, especially in religious
matters, are to be allowed and their expression is to be permitted.
Locke makes exceptions, however. Adulterers, whom he classes with
thieves and murderers, are not to be allowed. Nor are atheists,
who -- Locke says -- cannot be trusted to keep their promises.
Locke's political writings, especially the Second
Treatise on Civil Government, gave the ideological explanation of
the Glorius Revolution, which forced the abdication of James II,
and brought William of Orange from Holland, to rule England with
highly limited powers. This idea of a monarch whose powers are limited
by an agreement with the people who crowned him, is explained in
Locke's political writings as the "Social Contract". Although the
idea appeared earlier, in the writings of John Milton, who wrote
ideological pamphlets for Cromwell's revolution earlier in the same
century, Locke usually gets the credit. The idea of a social contract
between people and sovereign, with the sovereign having those, and
only those powers which the contract grants, is the source of the
"contractual model" of the physician-patient relationship, which
one often sees in the bioethics literature. (FL)
LOCUS: The
position on a chromosome of a gene or other chromosome marker, and
also the DNA at that position. Some restrict use of locus to regions
of DNA that are expressed. (See GENE EXPRESSION and ALLELES).
LOD SCORE (Logarithm of the Odd): Measures
the likelihood that two loci rest in close proximity on a chromosome.
In linkage analysis studies, multiple loci are probed to search
the for a candidate gene for the disease. The LOD score values
3 indicate there is a 1000:1 probability that the marker and the
disease locus are close one from another, whereas values
-2 indicate the probability of proximity is 1:100, excluding the
gene from that chromosomal region. (GK)
LONELINESS: An experience of absence and unhappiness involving longing for human
companionship, and feeling as though there are no inner or outer
connections within oneself or to other people. It is different from
being alone, as solitude can be an invigorating experience. Loneliness
is most common during a transitional period following the loss of
a friend or loved one. (See SOLITUDE) (MP)
LONGITUDINAL
STUDY: A study or survey which extends over a certain period
or is repeated at certain intervals in order to analyze changes
over time. (See TIME-SERIES DATA, MONITORING, CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY)
(MP)
LOVE:
1. an intense affectionate concern for another living organism
or object 2. the biological imperative for humane survival 3. an
intense sexual desire for another person. Love often becomes the
last refuge or common denominator and has been given other names:
God, the soul, values. (see LOVE OF LIFE; UNCONDITIONAL LOVE) (IP)
LOVE OF LIFE: The
concept of Bioethics as the Love of Life was developed by Darryl
Macer in 1994, and was the title of his 1998 book. The ethical ideals
of self-love, Loving others, loving good and loving life are used
to help resolve moral dilemmas. (DM)
LOVELOCK JAMES: See
GAIA HYPOTHESIS.
LOW BIRTH WEIGHT: A
birth weight of 2500 grams (5 lb., 8 oz.) or less, in the USA. As
technology develops the weight of a baby at borth that places them
at danger decreases. As nutrition improves the average weight may
increase, so each country may define this differently. (DM)
LOW
FREQUENCY ACTIVE SONAR: Recently developed US military technology
designed to detect ‘quiet’ submnderwthe technology in the Bahamas
and Canary Islands, in which rare beaked whales, among others, washed
up with hemorrhaged eardrums. (See SONAR, SUBMARINE, NUCLEAR SUBMARINE)
(MP)
LREC:
Local Research Ethics Committee, United Kingdom.
LSD: See HALLUCINOGENS, PSYCHEDELIC
LEARNING.
LUST: 1. sexual desire; 2.
some other strong primal urge. (RW)
LYME
DISEASE: A disability disease caused by the bacteria Borrelia
burgdorfei. No vaccine has been developed, but research is ongoing.
(JA)
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