| UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS
BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "N"s
A
B C D
E F G
H I J
K L M
N O P Q
R S T
U V W
X Y Z
To
find a specific term in this secition, go up to edit and choose
"Find" (on this page) and do a search for the term.
NAFTA:
The North American Free Trade Area provides for freer movement of
investments, goods and services between Canada, the USA and Mexico,
but not of people. (MP)
NAGASAKI: See
ATOM BOMB.
NAIETE:
Literally “a complete environment”, an Australian Aborigf human
and environmental wellbeing were to be safeguarded in this driest
of continents. (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES; AUSTRALIAN
ABORIGINAL; ANIMISM). (IP)
NANO-:
(Latin: nanus "dwarf") One billionth, or ten to the power
of minus nine. This is the scale relevant to atoms and molecules.
(See Nanotechnology) (MP)
NANOTECHNOLOGY: See NANOTECH. WEAPONS, GREY GOO CATASTROPHE, QUANTUM THEORY.
NANOTECHNOLOGY
WEAPONS: K. Eric Drexler’s landmark book Engines of Creation
also acknowledges nanotechnology as potential engines of destruction.
Drexler warns that nanotechnology may contain power greater than
the scale of the Earth, for example the ‘gray goo catastrophe’ which
would see the twist, Drexler propnign power to develop appropriate
global nanotechnology defenses such as ‘active shields’ before the
risk of misuse or an accident becomes too great. The dangers of
nanotechnology and its emergent properties are already in the popular
public consciousness (e.g. Michael Crichton’s Prey ). The
scale of potential effects to humanity warrants ethical attention,
however small the likelihood may appear. (See GRAY GOO CATASTROPHE,
SMART DUST, SWARM INTELLIGENCE, NANOBOT, ROBOTICS, SPACE WEAPONS,
VIRTUAL WEAPONS, BIOWEAPONS) (MP)
NARCOTIC:
Tending to induce sleep or unconsciousness like a drug which
produces a state of numbness (Gk narkotikos meaning numbing).
(IP)
NARROW SUSTAINABILITY: See
STRONG SUSTAINABILITY.
NASA: abbreviation
for NATIONAL AERONAUTICS SPACE ADMINISTRATION of the USA.
NATALITY:
Birth rate, or new individuals per unit time, can be referred
to as natality, the opposite of mortality. (See BIRTH RATE, MORTALITY)
(MP)
NATIONAL
AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION: See NASA of USA.
NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE: A
nationalized system of health insurance to citizens in a country,
for example the system used to cover medical costs in the UK is
called the NHS. (DM)
NATIONAL
MISSILE DEFENSE: See MISSILE DEFENSE.
NATIONAL
SOCIALISM: See NAZISM.
NATIVE TITLE LEGISLATION - AUSTRALIA: in an effort to establish
traditional rights to land, it was ruled on 3 rd June
1992 that Australia was not "terra nullius" in 1788; that is, native
title to land survived the Crown’s annexation of Australia,
because the continent had been occupied and managed by the customs
and laws of ait, successfully fought for the recognition of indigenous
peoples" right to their traditional lands (see Mch as John Howard’s
(the leader of the liberal party and Prime Minister at the
time) 10-point plan which, if implemented, effectively extinguishes
Native Title. (IP)
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.
NATURAL: (from Latin natura
meaning nature) 1. pertaining to or produced solely by Nature
or the expected order of things, as opposed to artificial or human
made 2. established by ethical certainty or conviction like natural
rights. (IP)
NATURAL CAPITAL: The stock of environmental assets and natural resources existing
in the physical environment. Components of natural capital range
from currently monitored factors such as mineral, forest or energy
resources, through to other important factors such as clean water
and atmosphere, biodiversity and ecological support systems. Natural
capital requires a broader set of measures and indicators to monitor
development and encourage the sustainable use of renewable resources.
The metaphor of the "global bank account" reminds us that the generation
of traditional economic assets usually (but not always) involves
depletion from the parallel account. Both accounts must be managed
sustainably. (MP)
NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS: any
method of conception control that rely on coital technique rather
than on the use medication or physical devices. During the menstrual
cycle there are days of absolute infertility and days of potential
fertility when conception ranges from very likely to very unlikely.
A number of methods have been devised to help identify the time
of maximum fertility so sexual intercourse can be avoided to decrease
the likelihood of pregnancy. In order to identify the time of ovulation
more precisely other optional extras have been developed; the most
common of these are to chart basal body temperature (which rises
0.2-0.6°C post-ovulation) or to monitor body changes such as
increases in the volume and changes in the texture of cervical mucus
(the Billing's method). Major concerns are unwanted pregnancies
and fertilizations with aged gametes resulting in possible genetic
defects and growth anomalies, and exposure to sexually transmitted
diseases. The same methods are also useful to pinpoint ovulation
in order to increase the chance of a wanted conception or when artificial
insemination or extraction of an oocyte for in vitro fertilization
is planned. (IP)
NATURAL HERITAGE: Natural heritage sites are physical or biological features, formations
or groups which have outstanding universal value from the point
of view of aesthetics, science or conservation. They include landscapes,
geological structures, ecological assemblies, rare habitats and
habitats containing threatened species. Conservation of natural
heritage may be achieved using networks of national parks or reserves
and international guidelines such as the 1972 UNESCO Convention
concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
(See HERITAGE, CULTURAL HERITAGE, WORLD HERITAGE) (MP)
NATURAL LAW: Rules of conduct derived
from nature and considered to be binding upon human society in the
absence of, or in addition to, institutional law. (DM)
NATURAL SELECTION: The
process of differential reproductive success by which genes in a
population increase or decrease in frequency with the passage of
generations, depending on their contribution to the survival of
offspring in which they are carried; arguably the most important
of the several mechanisms by which evolution takes place, discovered
by Darwin and first described in 1858-59. (DM)
NATURAL STEP: Developed
by Swedish scientist Karl-Henrik Robèrt
, Det Naturaliga Steget ("The Natural Step") is a set of
four sustainability principles stating that a) nature cannot withstand
systematic build-up of dispersed matter, b) build-up of persistent
chemical compounds or c) deterioration in its capacity for renewal,
and that d) efficient use and just distribution of resources are
therefore integral to the continuation of life. The Natural Step
is a useful conceptual framework which may help organizations to
implement sustainable development. Its range is however by no means
exhaustive, and in the modern era of biotechnology perhaps a natural
additional step would be to add that e) nature also cannot withstand
systematic degradation of the informational integrity inherent in
organisms and ecosystems. (See SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES)
(MP)
NATUROPATHY: is a relatively recent term (19th/20th century) that is used to
describe Western natural therapies that have as their basis a belief
that the body has the power to heal itself and that disease is caused
by the body trying to rid itself of impurities and restore a state
of balance. Treatments are aimed at supporting the body’s own
healing mechanisms rather than treating symptoms. Mental and spiritual
state are also considered important factors in athy was first used
by the German Benedict Lust when he brought this combination of
natural therapies from Germany to the US indecessors. Naturopaths
use a wide range of treatment modalities. (eg iridology, herbalism,
homoeopathy, massage, diet and exerc, HERB, BUSH MEDICINE) (JW)
NATURE: One kind of philosophy
says that nature is intelligent, wise and "teleological" in that
it strives to achieve purposes and goals. Nature may also be full
of spirituality, of what are called malachim (angels) in
the Bible, and kami (gods) in Shinto. Another kind of philosophy
says that nature is just the blind and random movement of subatomic
particles. Perhaps these philosophies can be reconciled if we conclude
from Heisenberg's Principle of Uncertainty in physics, that subatomic
particles are not really physical objects. The reason is that physical
objects, like swords and rocks, have definite position, momentum
and direction of movement at any given moment, but subatomic particles
don't (at least according to Heisenberg's theory). When we think
about it this way, subatomic particles seem more like spirits than
like dumb matter. They seem a lot like the "spiritual sparks" which
Israeli mysticism ( kabala ) says make up the world.
Nature is also referred to in natural approaches to health. A natural
approach to health would mean to try to eat simple foods -- organic
if possible, to live with a minimum of dependence on electricity
and fossil fuels, to avoid polluting the environment, and to try
to remain healthy, or to solve health problems oneself, avoiding
physicians and medicines (even "alternative" ones) as much as possible.
One would find time for martial arts, yoga, bicycling, hiking or
sports. And if one has health problems, one would re-examine one's
lifestyle, diet, environment and way of thinking. One would use
natural methods like William Bates' method for improving eyesight
without glasses. Or one might respond to back problems with walking
and moderate exercise, along with throwing away the mattress and
sleeping on wood with a thin pad, rather than surgery. And when
ailment cannot be avoided, one might even accept ailments as opportunities
to learn lessons for this life or for future incarnations. And one
would turn to doctors and medicine of all kinds only as a last resort.
Others will not find the time in their busy schedules for these
pursuits, but they do seem to find the time for doctors. (FL)
NAZISM: German Nationalsozialismus, is also called Nazism or Naziism. Was
thetotalitarian movemend in its practice. Ination, as well as a
vision of annihilation of all enemies of the Aryan race and people
as the one and only goal of Nazi policy. (DM)
NEANDERTHAL MAN: See
HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS.
NEEDLE EXCHANGE PROGRAMS: Needle
exchange is an important way of reducing the intravenous spread
of diseases such as HIV and Hepatitis among victims of heroin addiction.
Unlike other injecting drug users such as insulin-dependent diabetics
or amphetamine junkies, heroin users often have the feeling of urgency,
loss of judgment and lethargy which makes them more susceptible
to sharing needles. Government-funded needle exchange programs do
not encourage or condone drug abuse but accept it as a reality of
life and try to minimize harm by preventing the spread of disease
and reducing the dangers inherent in needles littering public spaces.
(See HEROIN INJECTING ROOMS, JUNKIE). (IP+MP)
NEGATIVE EUGENICS: Policies
and programs intended to reduce the occurrence of genetically determined
disease. (IP)
NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK: See FEEDBACK.
NEGLIGENCE:
In law or ethics, failure to exercise a reasonable degree of
care in one's actions. (DM)
NEGOTIATION:
Negotiation is communication and search for middle ground and
common values between opposing sides of a dispute or conflict. Analysis
of the conflict should take place before any proposals, to avoid
an adversarial bargaining dialogue. In fundamental conflict, cultural
values or human needs such as identity and security may not be subject
to compromise. In this case to avoid stalemate the negotiators must
analyze the respective interests, value systems and context to elucidate
tactical compromise without compromising ultimately non-negotiable
goals. If opposing sides cannot empathize or communicate with one
another then a third party mediator or facilitator may be required
for negotiation to take place. Other reasons for negotiation failure
can be the belief systems of the facilitator, biased mediation,
poor communication style, lack of teamwork, inflexibility and hidden
motivations. (See DISPUTE, CONFLICT, COMPROMISE, CONFLICT RESOLUTION,
MEDIATION, FACILITATION, THIRD PARTY, PREVENTIVE DIPLOMACY) (MP)
NEIJING:
(Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine). A classical
text of Chinese medicine written about 3rd century bce. This text
is attributed to the "Yellow Emperor" (Huang-di).The Neijing provides
the basis for Chinese traditional medicine. It is divided into two
parts: Su Wen (Plain Questions) and Ling Shu (Miraculous Pivot).
The book includes a detailed description of traditional Chinese
theory of medicine, including acupuncture. (see ACUPUNCTURE) (AG)
NEOLITHIC AGE: the
archeological age beginning around 10,000 BC characterized by agricultural
practices. (IP)
NEOMORTS:
See BRAIN DEATH.
NEONATAL DEATH: (Greek
neos new + Latin natus born) the death of a live-born
infant during the first 28 days after birth; however, early neonatal
death is usually considered to be one that occurs during the first
7 days. (see NEONATAL PERIOD) (IP)
NEONATAL PERIOD: the
period from birth to 28 days of age, during which the newborn must
make the physiological and emotional transition from the warmth
and security of the womb to independent survival. It is a period
when the infant needs protecting from infection and other environmental
stresses, normally freely provided through loving care. (IP)
NEONATOLOGY: Neonatology
is that branch of medicine, which deals with new-born babies. Neonate
intensive care units (NICU) treat both premature babies and babies
born with serious anomalies. NICU nurses develop a close relationship
and intimate familiarity with their patients and their problems,
which gives them considerable professional autonomy and recognition
of their authoritative status in clinical decision making. Some
neonatologists think that eventually the nurses will run the NICU,
and the physicians will only be consultants. NICU nursing is therefore
a model for nursing ethics.
Some of the most difficult ethical problems in the NICU arise from
disagreements between staff and parents. Sometimes the parents want
to continue treatment, while the staff are ready to discontinue.
In this case, the staff will often make the extra effort, knowing
that if they do succeed in saving the baby, it will receive all
love and care. But sometimes the parents want to discontinue treatment
while the staff want to continue. In this case the fact that the
baby is not the parents' property, but a human being in his or herself,
may lead the staff to ignore the parents' wishes and to save a human
life. But the subsequent burden on the parents cannot be ignored.
A policy of saving life whenever possible must be accompanied by
the development of appropriate social services and institutional
care, in order to ease the burden on parents. (FL)
NEONATE: An
infant from birth to 28 days of age. (see NEONATAL PERIOD) (JA)
NERVE CELLS: See
NEURON.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: See
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, NEURON AND BRAIN.
NEST:
1. Home of an animal, e.g. burrow, bird nest, ants nest. 2.
Topological term for a grouping of modules within a network or a
subsystem nested within a system. (See SYSTEMS THEORY) (MP)
NET: 1.
A snare comprised of an interlaced network of lines thrown across
an area to catch fish, insects etc. (See DRIFTNETS) 2. Colloquial
shorthand for the Internet. (See INTERNET) (MP)
NETIQUETTE:
("Internet" + "Etiquette") Online standards of practice and
social codes of politeness for e-mail and internet communication.
New circumstances in social relations such as anonymity and interactivity
on the internet and the dynamics and efficiency of e-mails necessitated
this new adaptation of "etiquette". Cyberspace opens up a realm
of communication opportunities, but netiquette reminds us that these
are connections to real people who deserve ethical online behavior.
Nevertheless, the net is often a much more informal and flexible
place, with surprising linkages and humorous web avenues, formality
foregone in many net interactions, and sloppy spelling and grammar
often considered ok in e-mails. (See E-MAIL, INTERNET, EMOTIONS)
(MP)
NETHERWORLD: Alternative
to the heaven-hell model of the afterlife. In various traditions
around the world, the souls or spirits of those who have died go
to a place called the Netherworld (i.e. the world below), and their
existance continues there. In this model of the afterlife, all go
to the Netherworld, regardless of the merit of their actions, because
this is simply the domain of the dead, just as the previous world
is the domain of the living. In the Old Testament, the Netherworld
is referred to as She'ol, and no clear mention of either heaven
or hell appears in the Old Testament. It would appear that these
concepts were borrowed from the Zoroastrian view of the universe
(see Zoroastrian). This Zoroastrian view had a profound effect on
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Greek tradition, the Netherworld
was reached by ferry across the river Styx. The ancient Greeks had
a custom of burying their dead with a coin in the mouth, so that
the dead person would have the fare to pay the ferryman on the river
Styx. In Babylonian tradition, the netherworld was reached through
a series of gates. (AG)
NETWORK:
At its simplest, a network is a system of intersection points
(nodes), and flow routes (links). This type of system is modeled
using ‘network geometry’ and the ‘network flow diagram’ in which
the nodes cepts (domains of philosophy/information, e.g. the Internet).
(See NETWORK DYNAMICS, NEURAL NETWORK, WEB, SYSTEM) (MP)
NETWORK
ANALYSIS: It is a technique used to control and plan large projects
It monitors the progress of the project and plans for the completion
of a project in a given time. (JA)
NETWORK
DYNAMICS: Network dynamics are the factors in networks changing
with time. In the ‘network flow diagram’ the node is a graph vertex
and the links are graph edges. ‘Flows’ (money, information, material)
may be one-way or both ways along a ‘link’ (circuit, road, production
chain, economic relationship, internet connection etc.) to be distributed
or transformed at a ‘node’ (individual, town, institution, cluster
of activity etc.). A ‘connectivity matrix’ can be used to arrange
numerical network data for statistics. (See NETWORK, SYSTEM DYNAMICS,
FEEDBACK, THRESHOLD, CYBERNETICS) (MP)
NEURAL COMPUTING: Computational
models based on neural networks, which use associative memory, inductive
reasoning, pattern recognition, parallel processing, interactive
networks and learning algorithms. (See ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS,
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, SMART DUST, GENETIC ALGORITHMS, NEURAL
NETWORKS) (MP)
NEURAL NETWORKS: 1.
Nerve cells (neurons or neural connections) are arranged and act
in a network. The neuron is comprised of a nucleus (node), dendrites
(inputs), axons (outputs) and synapses (transmission of signals).
Patterns of excitation across the network code for larger-scale
information or emergent properties such as thoughts. (See NETWORK,
NEURON, SYNAPSE, AXON, DENDRITES) 2. Any network with properties
analogous to biological neural networks, for example artificial
neural networks in computing. (See NEURAL COMPUTING, ARTIFICIAL
NEURAL NETWORKS) (MP)
NEURAL
TUBE DEFECT: A condition resulting from the failure of the neural
tube to close during fetal development, resulting in spina bifida
or anencephaly. (see SPINA BIFICA and FOLIC ACID)
NEUROLOGY: (Greek:
neuron "nerve" + logos "study" or "science"). Neural
biology and medicine. The study of the anatomy, physiology, processes,
function and diseases of the brain and nervous system. (MP)
NEUROHORMONE: a
hormone produced in neurones such as those of the hypothalamus and
released into the bloodstream, the cerebrospinal fluid, or intercellular
spaces of the nervous system. (IP)
NEURON: (Greek
neuron 'nerve'). A nervous system is made up largely of nerve
cells or neurons derived from the embryonic ectoderm and characterized
by a membrane potential (electrical charge) that can change in response
to stimuli generating action potentials (electrical discharges).
Neurons form the grey matter of the nervous system and are found
at the periphery of the brain, in the center of the spinal cord,
in groups called ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord and as
single cells in the wall of organs. Action potentials are generated
along an extension of the cell (the axon), which makes junctions
(synapses) with other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells. The
primary function of the neuron is conduction and information processing.
(See DENDRITES, AXON, SENSES, BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS, NEUROHORMONE,
NEUROLOGY) (IP)
NEUROTRANSMITTERS: see BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
NEUROTOXIN: (Greek
neuron nerve + toxikon poison) a poison that acts
directly on the tissues of the central nervous system; such as the
toxin secreted in the venom of certain snakes, or present in the
spines of certain shellfish, or produced by certain bacteria. (IP)
NEUTRON BOMB: also
known as 'enhanced-radiation weapon' or 'nuclear weapon' that is
designed to emit radiation penetrating armored vehicles killing
the occupants inside. Unlike the atom bomb, it causes little blast
or thermal effect but cannot be countered by normal nuclear, biological
or chemical precautions. NATO regards this bomb as its only secure
defense against armored attack. (See ATOM BOMB, PLUTONIUM) (IP)
NEW TESTAMENT: Sacred
literature of Christianity, centred on the life and teachings of
Jesus Christ. The New Testament was composed by many authors, mainly
in the Greek language during the 1st Century. The New Testament
advances from the 'eye for an eye' mentality, Christ teaching the
oppressed instead to 'love thine enemy'. (See OLD TESTAMENT, BIBLE,
JUDEO-CHRISTIAN, CHRIST) (MP)
NEWLY EMERGED PROBLEM: In
the field of bioethics (see bioethics) this means, a problem or
question raised by new scientific and technological procedures or
discoveries, which human kind was not faced before. In the field
of Islamic bioethics it gains another concept which means a new
problem or question which did not deal or answer directly, in the
primary sources of Islamic jurisprudence like Qur'an and Hadith
(Mostah-dath'ah in Arabic).The Islamic Jurists have to extract the
answer for that question, from the primary sources of Islamic law
with cooperation with the specialist of the field. (AB)
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES (NIC): The NICs are countries
which have been able to take advantage of their entrepreneurial
skills and manufacturing base to boost their development in the
international economic system. These countries often have open,
stable political systems but poor workers rights, allowing cheaply
produced export goods. The NICs include the "Asian Tiger" States
such as Taiwan, South Korea and Singapore, as well as some emerging
South American markets. (See DEVELOPED NATIONS, DEVELOPING NATIONS)
(MP)
NEWTON, SIR ISAAC: (1642-1727) English scientist who developed, among other things,
the general rules of calculus, advanced understanding of the nature
of light, constructed reflecting telescopes and formulated the idea
of universal gravitation when, by his own account, he saw an apple
fall to the ground. In 1687 Newton synthesized his research in one
of the most important books in the history of science 'Philosophia
Naturalis Principia Mathematica' or 'The Mathematical Principles
of Natural Philosophy' which established Newton as one of the
greatest of all physical scientists. Principia deals with the science
of moving bodies and establishes Newton's three laws of motion.
(See NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION; CLASSICAL MECHANICS; QUANTIM THEORY,
EINSTEIN, ALBERT; PLANCK, MAX) (IP)
NEWTON’s LAWS OF MOTION: The
three laws of motion include the law of universal gravitation, and
the law that planets move in ellipses under a central force which
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. (See NEWTON,
SIR ISAAC, CLASSICAL MECHANICS). (IP)
NEW GENETICS:
Modern branch of genetics, using genetic engineering technology
dealing with GMOs and cloning. (JA)
NIACINE: (Nicotinic Acid) Niacin
is a vitamin of the B complex group and occurs in both plant and
animal tissue but in different forms. The body changes the niacin
from plant food to niacinamide for use while animal foods contain
niacinamie ready for use. Niacin takes part in the production of
energy and tissue respiration and is essential for the maintenance
of a healthy skin, normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract,
maintenance of the nervous system and the synthesis of sex hormones.
Pellagra is a niacine deficiency disease. It’s water-soluble
and not sensitive to heat. The vitamin is found in good quantity
in brewer’s yeast, unpolished rice, wheat germ, whole grain
wheat, dried apricots, almonds, avocadoes, lentils and lima beans.
Rich animal sources are meats like poultry, fish, liver, kidney
and eggs. (See NUTRITION, VITAMIN A, VITAMIN B complex, VITAMIN
B, VITAMIN C, VITAMIN D, VITAMIN E, VITAMIN K, MINERALS, MINERAL
AND VITAMIN DEFICIENCY) (IP)
NIC: See
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES.
NICHE: (Latin:
nidus "nest") The place or role of a species within an ecosystem.
The combination of tactics and resources which comprise the competitive
strategy used by a species for success in natural selection. The
ecological niche of a species may be defined by its food, shelter,
foraging habitat, mating season and other ecological interactions.
A niche may also refer to any competitive position particularly
suited to the occupier of that position, such as a person’s niche
in the workplace, or a specific market which is advantageous to
a company. (See
ECOLOGICAL NICHE, NICHE DIFFERENTIATION) (MP)
NICHE
DIFFERENTIATION: Co-existence within a species or between similar
species who share fundamentally the same ecological niche, but are
distributed with different sub-habitats, seasonal periods and/or
habitat partitions as a result of resource competition. (See NICHE,
ECOLOGICAL NICHE) (MP)
NICOTINE:
A liquid alkaloid obtained from the dried leaves of the tobacco
plant Nicotiana tabacum first synthesized in 1904. Nicotine
is an extremely poisonous drug where a few drops in the stomach
may be sufficient to cause death due to respiratory paralysis. Since
the drug is readily absorbed through the skin rapidly entering the
bloodstream, smoking is the most effective method to gain a quick
fix. Pharmacologically, nicotine stimulates the sympathetic autonomic
nervous system and drug-dependence readily develops being characterized
by a strong desire to continue to smoke. (See TOBACCO, SMOKING,
ADDICTION) (IP)
NICOTINIC ACID: See
NIACINE.
NIETZSCHE,
FRIEDERICH: German philosopher of exceptional originality (1844-1900).
Nietzsche despised Christianity and talked of “the death of God”
and the impendifrequently polemis the concept of the Übermensch
(superman) with exceptional capacities, able to rise above the
common herd, freed from a servile dependence on God. Many of his
writings anticipate later philosophical and cultural developments
including a rejection of the view that things and values have an
existence in themselves (rather than in relation to others) and
a recognition of the importance of power in human relations. (MR)
NIH:
National Institutes of Health of the USA.
NIMBY: Shorthand for "Not In My Back Yard", highlighting public concern
about the location of potentially dangerous nuclear, industrial
and biotechnology developments. (MP)
NITROGEN: An
abundant, chemically inert gas that makes up 78% of the atmosphere,
but unlike carbon dioxide which photosynthesizers use directly,
nitrogen cannot be used by most organisms in its gaseous form but
has to be converted into biologically useful forms by a few species
of bacteria and cyanobacteria. Usable nitrogen is often in short
supply in ecosystems and is the reason why it is supplied in commercial
fertilizers. (See NITROGEN CYCLE, NITROGEN FIXATION, EUTROPHICATION)
(MP & IP)
NITROGEN CYCLE: (Greek:
nitron "soda" + genein "to produce" + kyklos "circle).
The conversion of organic molecules containing nitrogen (a component
of amino acids) into inorganic molecules (mostly in the form of
nitrates or ammonia) in several stages by different organisms, followed
by their uptake into plants and organic molecules. This movement
of nitrogen among organisms accounts for about 95% of all nitrogen
fluxes on Earth (see NITROGEN FIXATION & NITROGEN). (MP &
IP)
NITROGEN FIXATION: The
process of conversion or fixation of inorganic nitrogen gas from
the atmosphere into substances such as ammonia, which makes nitrogen
available to living organisms. Nitrogen fixation is essential in
the synthesis of amino acids, proteins and other nitrogen-containing
compounds. The organisms responsible for nitrogen fixation are either
symbiotic bacteria living in association with a plant, such as those
living in the root nodules of leguminous plants or inside lichens,
or free-living forms such as blue-green algae. (See NITROGEN CYCLE,
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES). (MP+IP)
NITROUS OXIDE: Nitrous
oxide, (N2O) is a colorless gas used as a short-lasting,
incomplete general anesthetic in dentistry, childbirth and minor
surgery. It should be administered in combination with oxygen to
prevent anoxia and asphyxiation. Also called laughing gas, it induces
giggling and temporary impairment of senses and is sometimes abused
recreationally by inhaling commercially available "whipped-cream
bulbs" through a cloth filter. (IP, MP)
NOAA: National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (US).
NOISE:
1. Sound waves, measured in decibels. (See NOISE POLLUTION,
DECIBEL) 2. Data which is random or unorganized; the opposite of
‘information’; precision is a measure of freedom from
noise; different to bias, noise is random variability or a non-directional
type of error; noise averages to zero and can be equalized out using
statistical inference; noise (e.g. ambiguity, typing errors, static
interference) is an unavoidable characteristic of research and communication.
(See INFORMATION, BIAS, ERROR, FUZZY LOGIC, STATISTICAL INFERENCE)
(MP)
NOISE POLLUTION: 1.
Sound, at sufficient volume or constancy, can become a form of pollution.
Noise at greater than 100 decibels (hard rock concert, jack-hammer,
jet engine) can cause pain and hearing impairment. Noise which is
at a lower level but constant (e.g. underwater Low Frequency Active
Sonar used by the US Navy) also acts as a broad environmental pollutant.
(See DECIBEL, LOW FREQUENCY ACTIVE SONAR) (MP)
NON-BIODEGRADABLE:
Inorganic or persistent organic materials in human pollution
which cannot be broken down in the environment by bacteria and other
decomposers within a time frame of many generations. These long-lived
waste products may be present in the atmosphere, land and water
systems, and include non-compostable domestic wastes and chemical/industrial
constituents of the solid waste stream. (See BIODEGRADABLE, PERSISTENT
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)
NON-CONSUMERISM:
See DEMATERIALIZATION.
NONDIRECTIVE
COUNSELING: Counseling in which the counsellor lets the person
being counselled make up their own decision without leading or dogmatically
stating which is the best choice. (See GENETIC COUNSELING). (DM)
NON
LETHAL WEAPONRY: Weapons designed to detect, prevent or negate
aggression without taking human life. Perhaps the turning point
in the concept of weapon lethality was realization of the ridiculous
levels of destructive power contained in nuclear weapons. Even with
conventional weapons use of lethal power is counter-productive,
exacerbating hatred and revenge attacks. In this age of peacekeeping
we must not succumb to the notion that war is about killing. Non
lethal weaponry includes rubber bullets, tear gas, catch-nets, sticky
foam, calmative & sleep agents, microwave guns, infrasound,
blinding lasers, and mines & grenades designed to maim not kill.
Other weapons are designed to immobilize vehicles, machinery or
command & control systems, for example cyber-warfare, directed
energy weapons, high power microwaves, metal embrittlement, anti-traction
lubricants and polymer adhesive glue. Another class are weapons
designed only to minimize allied casualties, for example body armor,
unmanned aerial vehicles and virtual warfare. One argument says
that any world power wanting to exert influence based on a reputation
of human values should be focused on non lethal weaponry. Even hardened
old military commanders see strategic and psychological advantage
in wounding. The horrible after-effects of wounding have sparked
protest - possibly people are more desensitized to killing than
to the creation of cripples. Skeptics are concerned about the spread
of crippling weapons in that grey area approaching lethality. They
may be misused against peaceful protesters in crowd control at the
hands of oppressive security forces. There is also potential for
misuse such as terrorist sabotage and hostage capture. Conversely,
one of the most promising applications is in terrorist response
and hostage rescue. (See LASER WEAPONS, CYBER WARFARE, VIRTUAL WEAPONS,
SPACE WEAPONS, JUST WAR, PEACEKEEPING, GENEVA CONVENTIONS, DISARMAMENT,
DEMILITARIZATION) (MP)
NONMALEFICENCE:
The state of not doing harm or evil; compare beneficence.
1.non-harmful or non-evil, bioethics= loving life 2. Medical
usage non-malpractice or conduct, an obligation to not inflict pain,
harm, misinformation or risk on others- avoid malevolence [Latin
non not ] see MALIFICENCE. (DM)
NON-OBVIOUSNESS: One of the criteria applied for PATENTs to be awared. (See OBVIOUSNESS)
(DM)
NON- PATERNITY: The
presumed father is found to not be the genetic father. (DM)
NON-REPRODUCTIVE CLONING: See STEM CELLS.
NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES: Sources
of energy and materials from nature which are unable to be replaced
or regenerated within a timescale similar to the human utilization
of the resource. Examples include fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and natural gas, or irreplaceable ecological resources such as endangered
species/habitats, old-growth forests and wilderness areas. (See
RESOURCE, RENEWABLE RESOURCES, RENEWABLE ENERGY) (MP)
NON
SEQUITUR: Latin for “it doesn’t follow”, a non sequitur is
a statement whose conclusion doesn’t follow from its premises. (See
REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM, FALLACIES, PREMISES) (MP)
NON-
THERAPEUTIC: Something which does not serve the purposes of
benefiting an individual patient. (DM)
NONTHERAPEUTIC RESEARCH: Research
that is not intended to benefit the subject on whom it is performed.
(DM)
NONVIOLENCE:
See PACIFISM, AHIMSA.
NONVIOLENT RESISTANCE: Non-violent resistance
may include strategies of diplomacy, political means, appeal to
world opinion, civil disobedience, industrial action, protest and
nonviolent direct action. Examples of nonviolent resistance include
Gandhi’s pacifist defiance of the otherwise well-meaning proted
in the issue. In the words of advice of John F. Kennedy to oppressive
governments: “Those who make peaceful revolutions impossible will
make violent revolutions inevitable.” (See PACIFISM, NONVIOLENT
DIRECT ACTION) (MP)
NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION: Protests
outside the institutionalized framework which do not incorporate
aggression, threat, violence or property damage. Activism which
is morally steadfast is more able to provoke admiration and sympathy
for the cause. (See NONVIOLENT RESISTANCE, DIRECT ACTION, CIVIL
DISOBEDIENCE, ACTIVISM, PACIFISM, PEACE MOVEMENT) (MP)
NOOSPHERE: The noosphere is the
cognitive layer of the Earth, used by Teilhard de Chardin to imply
some kind of emergent ‘global brain’. (See INFOSPHERE, BIOSPHERE,
INTERNET, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, SMART DUST, GLOBAL BRAIN) (MP)
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION: The
‘normal distribution’ is a function in which the variables fit the
symmetrical, unimodal ‘bell curve’, which haMany ecological variables
and biological functions approximate the normal distribution. (See
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION, PARAMETER, PARAMETRIC STATISTICS, SKEW,
KURTOSIS, EXPONENTIAL) (MP)
NORMATIVE
ETHICS: See ETHICS.
NORTH: A
term used in international political economics to refer to the First
World, consisting of the developed countries which are more advanced
in wealth and welfare. These countries are generally to be found
in the Northern Hemisphere, for example Europe, North America and
parts of Asia, and also including Australia and New Zealand as part
of the "North" despite their geographical location. (See DEVELOPED
NATIONS, SOUTH) (MP)
NORTH - SOUTH DIALOGUE: refers
to the technological and economic disparity between developed and
developing countries where 'North' refers to technology - producing
countries and 'South' refers to technology - importing countries.
(IP)
NOVELTY: one
of the criteria used in the evaluation of patent applications. The
invention or discovery being evaluated must be new and must not
have previously existed through the work of others in order to be
accepted on the grounds of novelty. (DM)
NOVOCAINE: (Latin
novus new + (co)caine) trademark for the anesthetic procaine
hydrochloride. Procaine is administered for local anesthesia and
for regional; such as epidural, procedures. (see ANESTHESIA) (IP)
NREN:
National Research and Education Network (US).
NUCLEAR
ENERGY: Energy generated by fission or fusion of atoms. See
NUCLEAR FISSION and NUCLEAR FUSION. (RW)
NUCLEAR FISSION: The process of splitting atoms apart, releasing smaller atoms, excess
neutrons, and large amounts of energy. Fission is used in commercial
power generation. Though initial claims predicted power too cheap
to meter, nuclear power is actually rather expensive. Accidents
in the nuclear power industry are not common, but some have widespread
and very long lasting consequences. The area around Chernobyl, site
of the world's worst nuclear fission accident, is highly contaminated
with radiation and will remain so for millennia into the future.
No safe permanent storage of nuclear waste has yet been developed
and deployed. (RW)
NUCLEAR-FREE ZONE: A
region with local authority to ban the transport, storage or deployment
of nuclear materials, facilities, weapons or waste. There are regional
nuclear-free zone treaties (e.g. New Zealand), and treaties prohibiting
the placement of nuclear weapons in space orbit, on the moon, in
Antarctica or on the ocean floor. (See NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION)
(MP)
NUCLEAR FUSION: The
process of joining together of atoms to produce heavier elements
and large amounts of energy. Fusion powers stars and fuel for fusion
is abundant on Earth, but this process has not yet been successfully
harnessed by humans for power generation. Nuclear fusion bombs have
been developed and tested, but never used in a conflict. (RW)
NUCLEAR SUBMARINE (SSBN): A
nuclear submarine is a covert underwater missile-tube powered by
a self-contained reactor, and may itself be considered a nuclear
weapon in addition to any nuclear-capable submarine-launched ballistic
missiles (SLBM) it may be carrying. The acronym referring to a nuclear
submarine (SSBN; 'Submarine, Strategic Ballistic Nuclear') is an
apt summary of the purpose and capabilities of these underwater
weapons. (See SUBMARINE, SLBM, NUCLEAR WEAPON) (MP)
NUCLEAR TRANSFER TECHNOLOGY: Technique
of transfer of nucleus from an adult somatic cell to an eunucliated
oocyte of another individual. Used in the creation of cloned animals
E.g. Dolly, the sheep. (JA)
NUCLEAR WEAPONS: Weapons
of mass destruction involving uncontrolled nuclear fission or fusion
reactions, emitting a huge explosive blast, electromagnetic pulse
and lethal radiation. Nuclear weapons include the atom bomb (e.g.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki; uranium/plutonium fission), hydrogen bomb
('H-bomb'; hydrogen fusion), and neutron bomb ('enhanced-radiation
weapon'; high mortality from radioactivity but reduced blast-damage
to infrastructure). Among the nuclear-capable missiles are the land-launched
inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM) and the submarine-launched
ballistic missile (SLBM). Likely potential developments in nuclear
weaponry include missile defense systems in space ('Star Wars'),
smaller low-impact nuclear weapons, multiple miniature missiles
('bomblets'), and potentially also the 'dirty bomb' and 'suitcase
nuke' of the terrorist. (See ATOM BOMB, HYDROGEN BOMB, NEUTRON BOMB,
ICBM, NUKE, DIRTY BOMB, NUCLEAR SUBMARINE, MISSILE DEFENSE, NUCLEAR-FREE
ZONE, NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION) (MP)
NUCLEAR WINTER:
a term used to describe a possible catastrophic atmospheric effect
that might follow nuclear explosions. The heat from the nuclear
blasts and from resulting fires would result in powerful updrafts
carrying combustion products to stratospheric regions. The reflection
and scattering of sunlight by these particles would then result
in freezing temperatures even in summertime; such as occurred in
1816 - "the year without a summer" - following the massive Tambora,
Indonesia, volcanic explosion of 1815. Carpet bombings of cities
and other pointless military activities also produce firestorms
that create their own particle-laden updrafts into the atmosphere.
(see AEROSOLS) (IP)
NUCLEIC ACID: A
macromolecule composed of sequences of nucleotide bases, DNA or
RNA.
NUCLEOTIDE: A
subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine,
guanine, thymine or cytosine in DNA; adenine, guanine, uracil or
cytosine, in RNA), a phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose
in DNA and ribose in RNA). Thousands of nucleotides are linked to
form the DNA or RNA molecule. See DNA, base pair, RNA The
human genome has 3.3 billion base pairs. (DM, IP)
NUCLEUS: The
membrane-enclosed structure in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes that
contains the chromosomes. (DM)
NUDISM: Nudism
is a bioethical doctrine, which encourages public nudity. This may
be at special beaches or resorts, or in daily public life. Reasons
for nudism may be for social protest, for health and relaxation,
or for openness among people.
Social Protest: In a well publicised event in the 1960's a young woman walked into
a banquet of the stockholders of a large corporation which was producing
chemicals for weapons use by the American military in Vietnam. She
was totally nude, and carried a pig's head on a platter. According
to reports, stockholders shouted: "Beat her. She's naked", and some
indeed attempted to beat her. The event demonstrated the violent
nature of some of the stockholders and their desire to punish the
woman for her nudity rather than for the cruelty perpetrated upon
the pig. The fact that the stockholders objected to the young woman's
harmless choice of fashion, but did not object to Vietnam war profit-making,
was the most salient social statement. Bioethicists, indeed, might
research the values of societies where many forms of dishonesty,
fraud and cruelty are tolerated, but where one who chooses to go
out without clothing is considered criminally insane.
Heath and Relaxation: Nudists
claim healthful benefits for exposure of the entire body to air
and sunlight. Of course too much direct sunlight may be correlated
with skin cancer, at least among some genotypes and in some latitudes.
But the danger is little less to wearers of bathing suits. Health
benefits may also be no less to wearers of bathing suits. But it
has been anecdotally observed that if one takes a cold shower, and
then steps out nude into a cool, well ventilated place, one will
be quite comfortable. But as soon as one dons even an item of underwear,
one will immediately feel cold. This observation might be tested
scientifically. Another health benefit which nudists claim is that
if one's body is exposed, then one has an added incentive to eat
and exercise properly to keep one's body fit and presentable. Nudists
consider it ridiculous that sedentary people who do not control
their appetites, are tolerated while they display their unsightly,
corpulent bodies on public beaches, so long as they wear the slightest
bathing suit. But fit, healthy nude people may be persecuted.
Openness among people: The motive of openness
and that of social protest cannot be entirely separated. A society
of greed, exploitation and cruelty might be encouraged in part by
a lack of understanding and sensitivity among people. The openness
of social nudity might encourage us to understand one another better,
and to treat one another with more sensitivity and kindness. If,
moreover, we are not secretive about our bodies, perhaps this will
lead us to be more honest with one another about other aspects of
our lives. The Internet, with the aid of illegal and legal hackers,
has opened to the public vast areas of our lives which one were
secret. The Death of Privacy may be approaching. Nudism may
be seen as an affirmation of accepting the Death of Privacy willingly,
a symbol of breaking down barriers, hypocrisy and deceit.
Although nudism gained in social acceptance
in the 1960's and 1970's in Western countries, fear of the AIDS
epidemic, lead in the 1980's to a revival of sexual conservatism
and an increase in modesty. But nudism need not be accompanied by
sexual carelessness.
On the other hand, no ideology can be taken
absolutely, and all have their flaws. Nudism is not a panacea, and
nudists are just as capable of most kinds of crimes as anybody else.
The only crimes which nudism can quite certainly eliminate are exhibitionism
and voyeurism.
It has been observed that nudism, in the Northern
Hemisphere, increases, as the latitude becomes more northerly. This
may be because wherever summer sunshine is rarest, it is more precious
and people make more effort to enjoy it. But this observation does
not seem to have been scientifically studied. (FL)
NUKE: 'Nuke'
is trivializing US shorthand for nuclear weapon; to use one on somebody
is, to use the common but thoughtless colloquialism, to 'nuke' them.
(See NUCLEAR WEAPONS) (MP)
NULL
HYPOTHESIS: The mutually exclusive or inversely opposite set
to the hypothesis. Often the null hypothesis asserts no differences
between treatment populations. Disproving the null hypothesis adds
weight to the hypothesis. (See HYPOTHESIS, FALSIFICATION, SCIENTIFIC
METHOD, TYPE I ERROR) (MP)
NUREMBERG CODE: A
set of legal principles for medical human experimentation, signed
by the judges presiding over the 1947 Nuremberg Medical Trial investigating
World War II atrocities. Among their prescriptions was the principle
of informed consent, that nobody should be involuntarily subjected
to scientific experimentation. The Nuremberg Code has been internationally
recognized by relevant institutions and human rights groups. (See
NUREMBERG TRIALS) (MP)
NUREMBERG TRIALS: The
trials at the end of World War II of Nazi leaders and war criminals
for genocide, crimes against humanity, treatment of prisoners and
other crimes committed during the war. There were a total of 177
trials, ranging from the death sentence to acquittal. The Nuremberg
Trials and Nuremburg Code were an important precedent in the historical
progress of international war law. (See NUREMBERG CODE, INTERNATIONAL
WAR LAW) (MP)
NURSING
ETHICS: Nursing is an ethical endeavour. An ethics of nursing
has long been debated and written about. It is only since the 1980s
that nursing ethics has become a subject for academic study and
analysis. A nursing ethic is closely allied to an ethic of care
and thus to the feminist principles of that domain. As a theory,
it has, however, often been disputed as not being rigorous or rational
enough. In turn this has also been disputed, notably by Maurice
Rickard, Helga Kuhse and Peter Singer (1), who have shown that there
are two distinct ways of reasoning ethically that are not based
on either the traditional justice (2) or feminist (3) premises since
women and men use both possibilities equally in similar circumstances.
The decision, however, depends on the relationship between carer
and cared-for. The closer one is to the cared-for person, the more
one’s decisions are based on intuition, conscience, care,
compassion etc, and the further away one is, the more one’s decisions
are based on justice and logic. The two ways of reasoning and decision
making are both necessary and valid.
In health care, the relationship between nurse and patient or client
is of vital importance. It is necessary for simple care, but it
is even more important when the needs of holistic care are taken
into account. Holistic care demands that nurses are aware of all
the needs and circumstances of a person, and in particular also
the person’s emotional, psychological and spiritual resources.
To understand these, a trusting relationship is vital. Such a relationship
is based nd support each other, and therefore share each other’s
life for the duration of the relationship (4).
As a discipline, nursing ethics is however,
accepting within it also many other approaches. A particularly popular
approach is from virtue, which considers the moral basis of the
person (5, 6). This approach questions first why someone should
be honest, good, loyal, trusting, etc and from what motivates these
virtues (or values) stem. This demands not only personal awareness
and insight, but also a good understanding of group and social psychology.
Approaching nursing ethics from human rights
is also popular, but not without problems. Human rights "serve as
the moral underpinnings of contemporary international relations,
setting the individual at the core of national and international
concerns" (7). Human rights are difficult enough to prove and maintain
for issues such as freedom from torture, freedom of expression,
religion and association (8), thus claiming a right to health is
that much more difficult. It is hard enough to get the health care
needed when resources are limited, in places where there is simply
no provision for health, claiming a right to it makes little sense.
However, all nurses must be aware of the need for respect for the
person, and to uphold rights to privacy (confidentiality), adequate
information and to be treated humanely. It is too often taken for
granted that these rights are inherent in health care, but this
should never be assumed.
Using stories as a basis for care has always
been customary in nursing, but narrative ethics takes the field
further into deeper reflection. Sally Gadow (9) has made a strong
point for relational narratives. The starting point for this theory
is the uniqueness of the individual: but individuals are in relation.
Gadow considers this in the context of postmodernism, where few
certainties exist. What a person has and is, therefore, matters
above all, and this has to be expressed and heard. In order to make
sense of an illness or tragedy, a person has to tell his or her
story, and this has to be heard and acknowledged. As the story unfolds,
so the ethics of a given situation also unfolds.
This type of ethical enquiry is closely related
to an ethic of care. Theories have different bases, but the essential
is that those who are cared for are respected and helped. This needs
nurses who are able to give this kind of care, that is, who can
and do act ethically and who are supported and educated in this
endeavour. Ethics education should therefore not only be a discreet
subject in a curriculum, but integrated through the whole of pre-
and post-registration nursing education.
If nursing ethics has an international language
and norms remains disputed. Through travel and by reading, knowledge
becomes internationalised, but cultural norms vary considerably.
The main difference is between cultures that lay emphasis on the
individual (North America and Europe) or on the family and groups
(Asia, Africa, South America). The two cultures are not exclusive,
but it does mean that certain norms that are taken for granted in
Western cultures, such as autonomy, cannot apply globally. This
makes it imperative that nursing ethics is therefore approached
from the basis that is most fitting in a given situation or culture.
(VT)
References
1.
Maurice Rickard, Helga Kuhse, Peter Singer "Caring and justice:
as study of two approaches to health care ethics", Nursing Ethics
, 3 :3, 212-223, 1996.
2. Laurence Kohlberg The
Philosophy of Moral Development , San Francisco: Harper and
Row, 1981.
3. Carol Gilligan In
a Different Voice; Psychological Theory and Women’s Development
, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1982.
4. Verena Tschudin Ethics
in Nursing; the caring relationship 3/e, Oxford: Elsevier, 2002.
5. P Ann Scott "Aristotle, nursing and health care ethics",
Nursing
Ethics , 2 :4, 279-286, 1995.
6. Per Nortvedt "Sensitive judgement:
an inquiry into the foundations of nursing ethics", Nursing
Ethics , 5 :5, 385-392, 1998.
7. Wendy Austin "Using the human rights
paradigm in health ethics: the problems and the possibilities",
Nursing
Ethics , 8 :3, 183-195, 2001.
8. The Human Rights Act 1998 (UK) and
the European Convention on Human Rights.
(9)
Sally Gadow "Relational Narrative: The Postmodern Turn in Nursing
Ethics", Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice , 13 :1,
57-70, 1999. (VT)
NURSING HOMES: Facilities
that provide nursing supervision and limited medical care to persons
who do not require hospitalization. (DM)
NUTRIENT CYCLE: See
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE.
NUTRITION: The
science of food, the nutrients and other substances contained therein,
their action, interaction, and balance in relation to health and
disease. (See NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY, MALNUTRITION) (DM+IP)
NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY: Imbalance
in nourishment to body. (JA)
Back
to top
A
B C D
E F G
H I J
K L M
N O P Q
R S T
U V W
X Y Z |
