UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "S"s

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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S & M: See SADOMASOCHISM.

SACRED SITE: A site that has special religious meaning to a group of persons. To the Aboriginal Australians include burial grounds, ceremony grounds, spirit places and places formed by the actions of spirits or ancestors (see Dreamtime and Dreaming & Rainbow Serpent). The sites marking the location where the Dreamtime Spirits re-entered the Earth after creation are specially sacred as the power of the Dreaming force continues for the good of all living inhabitants of that land; however, its traditional laws have to be respected in specified ways. Their location is kept secret from those who have no relation to this knowledge and who are not initiates of that particular Dreaming - the latter are forbidden to go there on pain of illness or death. (IP, DM)

SAD: See SEASONALLY AFFECTIVE DISORDER.

SADISM: Sadism is a form of satisfaction, commonly sexual, derived from inflicting pain or harm on another individual. It is a mental disorder which manifests in antisocial behaviour such as verbal or physical aggression. The term is derived from the Marquis de Sade (1740-1814), a French soldier initially condemned to death for his cruelty and sexual perversions but later imprisoned in the Bastille, during and after which he wrote licentious novels. (See MASOCHISM, SADOMASOCHISM). (IP, MP)

SADNESS: See DEPRESSION.

SADOMASOCHISM: Sado-masochism (SM) is the acting out of sexual fantasies based around roles of domination and submission, often involving discipline, emotional ridicule, rope bondage and/or physical flagellation. In the underground sex community it also goes by the name S & M (short for Sadism and Masochism, or alternately Slave and Master). Harm minimizations, such as precautions with blood, feces and implements, are paramount as this may be one of the riskiest forms of sex. Ethical philosophy in SM precludes doing anything without the freely-given informed consent of a sane adult, or causing injury requiring a physician/psychotherapist or risk of death or irreparable damage, even with consent. (See SADISM, MASOCHISM) (MP)

SAFE PERIOD: misleading name for the days during each 28-day menstrual cycle when sexual intercourse is least likely to be followed by pregnancy. (See NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS). (IP)

SAFETY: The reasonable certainty that no harm will result under expected conditions of use. (DM)

SALAAM: Salaam or salem means ‘peace’ in the Arabic language. The salutation is often used in greeting, as in assalum ‘alaikum (‘peace be with you’), illustrating the fact that peace and charity are central concepts of Islam. (See SHALOM, SHANTI, PEACE) (MP)

SALINIZATION: See ACID SULPHATE SOILS.

SALT: 1. A salt is a soluble crystalline solid compound (e.g. carbonates, chlorides, nitrates), including common salt (halite or sea/rock/table-salt) sodium chloride (NaCl). Chemical salts in the environment and food chain have implications for human, ecological and agricultural health. (See SALINIZATION) 2. Acronym for Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and SALT II) and/or Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. (MP)

SAM: Surface-to-Air Missile.

SAMPLE: A sample is a subset of observed data drawn from the whole population set, to be used in statistical inference. A sample can estimate conclusions about the entire set if the sample size is sufficiently proportional to the size of the whole statistical population, and if it is randomly or representatively selected. (See STATISTIC, REPRESENTATIVE) (MP)

SANCTITY OF LIFE: The principle that life is sacred and cannot be killed. (DM)

SANCTIONS: Sanctions are non-military impositions placed on a country perceived to be behaving out of line with the international community. They may include unilateral or multi-national trade restrictions and interruptions to transport, media, economic and diplomatic relations. The object of sanctions is to coerce a national government to change against its will. United Nations sanctions at different times have included arms embargoes (e.g. South Africa, Somalia, Haiti, former Yugoslav republics), restricted sanctions (e.g. Libya) and economic sanctions (e.g. Yugoslavia, Iraq). Military sanctions are a powerful tool for preventing the spread of nuclear or conventional weapons and small arms, but economic sanctions have been criticized on ethical grounds for the suffering and death they inflict on populations with limited access to food, basic medicines and general life satisfaction. (See ECONOMIC SANCTIONS) (MP)

SANGER, MARGARET: (1879-1966) an American human rights campaigner who coined the term "birth control" as a positive description of family limitation to replace the old economic term "neo-Malthusianism" (after Malthus’s  message that contraception was the logical response to poverty posed by over-population). Building on her wide experience as an obstetrical nurse working for single mothers and underprivileged famlies, Sanger became convinced that the high infant/maternal morbidity and mortality rates, especially found in "backyard" and self-induced abortions, could only be confronted by liberating women fromunwanted pregnancies. Accordingly, and in defiance of the then prevailing climate of "righteousness", she founded in 1914 the magazine " Birth Control Review" in which she publicized contraceptive methods. In 1921 Sanger founded the American Birth Control League, in 1927 she organized the first World Population Conference in Geneva, in 1936 she was instrumental in modifying the Compstock Act to permit doctors to prescribe contraceptives, and in 1953 was elected the first president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. (see STOPES, MARIE) (IP)

SANSKRIT: Ancient language of northern India. The word Sanskrit (samskrta) means "polished speech", as distinguished from the speech of the common people, which was known as "Prakrit" (prakrta). The earliest form of Sanskrit is found in the Veda. A dialectal variant of Sanskrit known as Pali is the language of the classical Buddhist writings. (AG)

SAPPHO OF LESBOS: (~ 617-612 BC) was the greatest lyric poet of early Greek antiquity who created a circle round herself of female friends and students. Faced with male-dominated society where military masculinity was the supreme virtue, Sappho dared to oppose this with the lyricism of femininity expressed through verse and song. She was slandered for female homosexuality, was married, had a daughter and in the end suicided for the love of a man. (see LESBIAN/ISM) (IP)

SAS: Special Air Service (UK/Australia).

SATAN: (from the Hebrew root s.t.n., meaning "to obstruct, to block the way"). The original meaning of this word in Hebrew is an adversary, or one who blocks the way. The word appears in this meaning in several places in the Old Testament. However, in the book of Job, there is reference to "the Satan" who criticizes God's statements and tries to temp Job into sin. It is this Satan figure that is later developed in Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions as the adversary of God, the one who represents rebellion against God's word. Later interpretations look for hints of Satan in this sense in various other places in the Old Testament. For example, the Serpent of the Garden of Eden story in Genesis is often explained as a form of Satan. In the Greek of the New Testament, the word "Satanas" various times as the being which tries to bring about temptation, especially trying to tempt Jesus, and the one whom Jesus will vanquish in a future time. The development of the character of Satan is more pronounced in Christian literature than in Jewish or Muslim literature. For example, in Jewish writings, there is a greater tendency to refer to " Yetser Hara' " (the evil inclination) as a source of temptation than the use of the word Satan. (AG)

SATELLITE: 1. A moon circling a planet, e.g. Jupiter’s satellites include Europa, Io and Ganymede. 2. A technology designed for and deployed into Earth’s orbit, for example communications, research and spy satellites. (See SPUTNIK, COBE, HUBBLE TELESCOPE, SPACE EXPLORATION) (MP)

SATISFACTION: See PUBLIC OPINION.

SAVAGE: outdated use a derogative description of indigenous peoples, in particular black.

SAVANNAH: The tropical grassland habitat and community, for example between Africa’s Sahara desert and Congo basin rainforest. Characterized by grasses and riate agricultural practices. Similar tropical and temperate grassland habitats are common, for example the American prairies and semi-arid Australia. (See HABITAT TYPES, SCLEROPHYLL FOREST) (MP)

SBS (SPECIAL BROADCASTING SERVICE): Award-winning Australian free-to-air multicultural broadcaster including multi-language radio service and commercial-limited public television channel presenting an admirably diverse range of otherwise non-commercially viable world movies, cultural oddities and intellectually-based global news. Paradoxically, the premier channel of Australian TV is also the least watched. Entities such as SBS which sustain cultural diversity must be carefully conserved in this era of dumbing-down for the mass media market. (See CULTURE JAMMING, MULTICULTURALISM) (MP)

SCALE: Scale is the size or dimensions of a system. ‘Spatial scale’ is the extent of something in three-dimensional space, measured in meters or light-years. ‘Temporal scale’ refers to extent in the fourth dimension, time, measured from seconds to millions of years for geological time. Standard SI Unit multipliers are as follows: atto-10^-18 ; femto-10^-15 ; pico-10^-12 ; nano-10^-9 ; micro-10^-6 ; milli-10^-3 ; centi-10^-2 ; deci-10^-1 ; deka-10¹ ; hecto-10² ; kilo-1³ ; mega-10⁶ ; giga-10⁹ ; tera-10¹² ; peta-10¹⁵ ; exa-10¹⁸. Systems are defined by spatial scale, from nano- (atoms), micro- (molecules, cells), through macro-scale (ecosystems, cities) to mega-scale (global environment). Natural and human ecosystems are measured at the genetic, individual, family group, local community, habitat, catchment, bioregion, city, state/province, national, international and global scales. System dynamics are measured in temporal scale from small periods (e.g. feedback) to large periods of time (e.g. astrophysics). Problems and policy must be addressed to the correct scale. Behaviors of larger scale systems may be dependent on changes in smaller scale systems. ‘Spatial and temporal scaling’ is the application of this knowledge across these scales. ‘Scale-and-category grammar’ is a language model based on substance, form and context. A wonderful illustration of the breadth of scale is Kees Boeke’s Cosmic View , which traverses from the scale of a human individual both inwards to subatomic levels, and outwards to the scale of the universe. (See SPACE, TIME, SYSTEMS THEORY, MEASUREMENT, HIERARCHY, BIOREGION, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, EARTH FROM SPACE) (MP)

SCHUMACHER, ERNST: See SUFFICIENCY.

SCIENCE: Intellectual discipline characterised by its investigation of the natural world (biological, chemical and physical) by means of procedures that are, at least in principle, independent of the persons who employ them and are published in sufficient detail for others to repeat them and so check any reported findings. (See SCIENTIFIC METHOD). (MR)

SCIENCE FICTION: Science fiction is imaginative fantasy based on science. There is a distinction between "soft" and "hard" science fiction, the latter adhering as closely as possible to current understanding of physical laws and the limitations of technology. Leading "hard" science fiction authors such as Arthur C. Clark and Isaac Asimov have predicted and guided significant real advances in technology such as satellites and robotics. Science fiction, from the classic tradition to cyberpunk and including the utopian and dystopian literature, is of course a vibrant source of bioethical discussion. The genre entertainingly places human and alien societies in potential future contexts of science, technology and sociopolitical organization. (See SCIENCE, UTOPIA, DYSTOPIA, CYBERPUNK, FUTUROLOGY) (MP)

SCIENCE OF CHOICE: The ability to choose between alternative behaviours.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: The process by which scientists expand and improve scientific knowledge. Four steps characterize the scientific method: 1. observations that lead to a question or problem; 2. formation of a hypothesis (or hypotheses) that answers the question or solves the problem; 3. making predictions from the hypothesis; and 4. experimental or observational testing of the predictions. If the predictions are true, then the results support the hypothesis; however, the scientific method lacks any way of proving scientific information with absolute certainty. Hypotheses that are repeatedly supported by independent investigators and in multiple tests gain acceptance; those hypothesis that are consistently corroborated become theories or, especially in physics, natural laws. If the predictions are false, then the hypothesis is rejected and must either be discarded as false or modified to accommodate the new observations. The scientific method is also known as the hypothetico-deductive method. A key feature of the scientific method is the fact that every scientific idea must be subject to testing, in other words, falsifiability. The scientific method has been extremely successful in producing and improving a body of knowledge that is demonstrably reliable. (See SCIENCE, DEDUCTION, INDUCTION, HYPOTHESIS). (IP+RW)

SCIENTIFIC MISCONDUCT: Violation of laws, regulations, or professional standards in any scientific research. (DM)

SCIENTIFIC PARADIGM: See PARADIGM.

SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Thought and rationalism based upon principles of questioning, systematic reduction, value-neutral objectivity, parsimony, logical consistency, and usually but not always agreement with existing knowledge. Value is placed on predictive power and explanatory power. Distinction is made between data, assumptions, hypothesis and theory. Knowledge is gained through testability and falsification using experiments, controlled observations, replicability and quantification. Science is better at reductionism than synthesis. Scientific thinking is often based on critical analysis, something best kept contained in social or family situations. Scientific thinking is often mistrustful of that which is not testable, but the limitations of science become apparent when dealing with many subjects either of great philosophical abstraction or of great complexity. (See SCIENTIFIC METHOD, FALSIFICATION, REDUCTIONIST, ANALYSIS, DEDUCTION, INDUCTION, PARSIMONY, EXPERIMENT, BEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION, KNOWLEDGE, EXPERT) (MP)

SCHIZOPHRENIA: A psychotic disorder characterized by personality disintegration and distortion in the perception of reality. Overall terms given to several related mental disorders characterized by a disconnection between feelings, thoughts and actions. Word made its first appearance in the English language in 1912 (Greek skhistos split and phren mind) (see HALLUCINATION). (DM+IP)

SCIMAC: An organization "supply chain initiative on modified agricultural crops", composed of a group of industrial body. It represents farmers, the seed traders, plant breeders and biotechnology companies. It aims to provide a support for the safe and effective introduction of GM crops in UK. It provides open information so as to enable proper consumer choice. (JA)

SCLEROPHYLL FOREST: A tall open forest dominated by plants such as eucalyptus, which have sclerophyll leaves. These leaves are stiff and toughened with a reduced surface area to minimize water loss in regions of low or irregular rainfall. In Australia such forests are common on the eastern, Tasmanian and southwestern coasts. Dry sclerophyll forests are typically up to 30 meters in height with medium canopy cover, adapted to low nutrient soils, and resistant to fire. Wet sclerophyll forests are typically taller to 60 meters and occur on more fertile soils in moister regions or sheltered valleys. (See EUCALYPTUS) (MP)

SCNT - Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer: in which the nucleus of a somatic cell is transferred into an enucleated egg.   In some way the nucleus of the somatic cell and the cytoplasm of the egg are able to reprogram and interact to initiate embryogenesis. Dolly the Sheep was born using SCNT technology. (JA).

SCOPING: Pre-investigation of the key issues, environmental elements, habitats, stakeholders and boundaries of concern, and the relevance or irrelevance of different factors to the decision-making process involved. (See BASELINE MONITORING, PILOT STUDY, META-ANALYSIS, INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS) (MP)

SEA LEVEL RISE: See GLOBAL WARMING.

SEAGRASS: Seagrasses (e.g. Zostera, Posidonia) are rhizome angiosperm grasses adapted to live underwater in shallow estuaries and sheltered lagoons. Conservation of seagrass beds is important for nutrient productivity and to provide habitat for juvenile fish. Seagrass communities are in serious decline due to human-induced processes like sedimentation and eutrophication, and activities such as trawling. (See ESTUARY, MANGROVE FOREST, BENTHOS, ALGAE, EUTROPHICATION) (MP)

SEASONALLY AFFECTIVE DISORDER: Periodic depression which coincides annually with the winter season, often emerging during the long, cold, dark winters of Northern regions. (See DEPRESSION) (MP)

SECOND WORLD: Term no longer commonly used in international politics, describing Cold War command economies such as in the former Soviet bloc which collapsed 1989-1991. (See DEVELOPING NATIONS, FIRST WORLD, THIRD WORLD, FOURTH WORLD) (MP)

SECRET WOMEN’s  BUSINESS: See WOMEN’s  BUSINESS.

SECULAR ETHICS: Theories of what is good and bad, or right or wrong, based on criteria other than religious doctrine. (see ETHICS) (DM)

SEDA: see SUSTAINABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY - AUSTRALIA.

SEED: A mature ovule, consisting of an embryonic plat together with a store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat. A seed usually develops following the fertilization of an egg cell by a male generative cell from a pollen grain. (DM)

SEED BANKS: A storage facility where the genetic resources of plants are preserved for future use. These seed and germplasm banks are found mostly in university departments and other research institutes. Multinational companies store genetic materials for the development of new plant varieties. (JA)

SEED TO STOMACH: Includes the primary production- harvesting of food- food processing, manufacture, distribution and retailing and consumption. (JA)

SELECTIVE ABORTION: Abortion of a fetus because it is, or may be, defective. (DM)

SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE: An organism's increased probability of reproduction and producing offspring, conferred by its genetic characteristics. (DM)

SELECTION FOR TREATMENT: The use of criteria either for choosing patients to be treated when resources are limited, or for choosing patients for whom a particular treatment is efficacious. (See Triage) (DM)

SELECTION PRESSURE: The influence of factors extrinsic to an organism (i.e. environmental factors) on its ability to compete with other organisms for reproductive success. (DM)

SELF: An individual’s  unique recelf-determinaINE, SELF-IMPROVEMENT) (MP)

SELF AWARENESS: Self-awareness includes consciousness of: a) Continuity of perception and personality through time; b) Unity of self; c) Embodiment or body image; d) Agency such as free will; e) Awareness of one’s own character, strengths, weaknesses, desires and wellbeing. (See CONSCIOUSNESS, SELF) (MP)

SELF-DISCIPLINE: The ability to restrain your behavior or emotions (self-control), activate yourself (self-motivation) and direct your own pathway through life (self-determination). (See SELF) (MP)

SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY: Expectations coming true, partly related to subconscious activity, selective perception, and the placebo effect; for example feedback between hypochondria and psychosomatic stress creating a negative effect on physiological health. (See HYPOCHONDRIA) (MP)

SELF-GOVERNMENT:

SELF-IMPROVEMENT: Sensible conscious improvement of one’s  status, education, behavior, self-fficient and compassionate whole person. (See SELF) (MP)

SELF INTEREST:

SELF-RESPONSIBILITY: less reliance on the system by owning information so that we can make our own decisions. (see RESPONSIBLE)

SELF-SUFFICIENT: Having abilities and resources to sustainably provide for oneself without reliance on outside help. (See SUFFICIENCY, SELF) (MP)

SELFISH GENE THEORY: See SOCIOBIOLOGY.

SEMANTICS: The branch of semiotics which investigates the relation of a sign, usually a word or phrase, to the concept which is being signified. In other words, semantics is a study of meaning. The term "a semantic difference" is used as a rebuttal to imply that a difference is only verbal therefore irrelevant, but differences in semantics may technically just as easily be significant changes to meaning. (See SIGN, SEMIOTICS) (MP)

SEMEN: A fluid consisting of secretions from the male's seminal vesicles, prostate, and from the glands adjacent to the urethra. Semen carries sperm and is ejaculated during intercourse. (DM)

SEMI-AUTOMATIC WEAPON: See AUTOMATIC WEAPONS.

SEMIOTICS: (Greek: semeion "sign") Semiotics or semiology refer to the study of signs, or the ways in which we create meaning in communication. Semiology was coined by Ferdinand de Saussure as a method of cultural analysis, and is a study in which meanings are interpretative rather than truly objective. Linguistics, the study of language, is one of the more formalized and precise branches of semiotics. In our internationalized world of advertising and multimedia, there must be broad consideration of cultural conventions, codes, symbols and multimodal methods of communication. Interpretation of such signs is required to assess the ethics, or lack thereof, which feature in the content and spread of local and global cultures. (See SIGN, SEMANTICS, MULTIMODAL COMMUNICATION) (MP)

SENILITY: (Latin senilis 'aged') feebleness and deterioration of the body and mind characteristic of old age, dementia or atrophy. Incapacity to exercise informed consent due to impairment of the intellectual faculties. (See MENTAL INCOMPETENCE). (IP)

SENSES: In order to live in and to be able to adapt to the external environment, all living organisms must be able to communicate with it. Similarly communication is necessary for the stimulation, regulation and co-ordination of activities within the body. In both cases communication involves a cycle of receiving, collating and giving information. The brain receives communication from the outside the body through the five special senses - sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Although the senses are considered different and separate from each other, one sense is rarely used on its own; for example, taste and smell are closely associated with the enjoyment of food. The somatic or common senses originating in the skin are pain, touch, heat and cold. Proprioceptor senses originate in muscles and joints and contribute to the maintenance of balance and posture; that is, pertaining to the sensations of body movements and awareness of posture. Autonomic afferent nerves originate in internal organs and tissues and are associated with reflex regulation activity and visceral pain. Nerve endings are stimulated by phenomena outside the body and the resultant nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain by nerve fibers for 'interpretation' or perception. The brain collates this information obtained from the memory, and the result is coordinated and regulated communication with the outside world (See HEARING, VISION, OLFACTION, TASTE, TOUCH, SOUND). (IP)

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: A test of the robustness of a management model, statistical method or other decision-making tool, in which a controlled series of changes are made to the input of the process in order to elucidate their effect on the output and proposed solution. The robust model will be able to optimize a solution which is not sensitive to fluctuations from environmental variability or human subjectivity. (See OPTIMIZATION) (MP)

SENSOR NETWORKS: Wireless sensors such as tracking bugs or sensory microprocessors can be networked together to provide integrated intelligence for data collection. Further miniaturization of these sensors produces the now commercially available ‘smart dust’, which wiop movemenrious privacy concerns. (See SMART DUST, MOTES, BUG, NETWORK, NEURAL NETWORK, BIG BROTHER) (MP)

SEPPUKU: See HARAKIRI.

SERE: Any of the plant communities in ecological succession, or the types and stages of succession (e.g. hydrosere in water, prisere on bare ground, plagiosere deflected by biota). (See ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION) (MP)

SEROTONIN : See BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS.

SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS: a growing family of drugs, including sertraline and paroxetine - are significant because they represent a new generation of "designer" antidepressants, created from a knowledge of how the brain works and of the molecular biology of the neuron. Many older antidepressant drugs, particularly the tricyclic family of which imipramine is representative, are diffuse in the regulatory mechanisms they disrupt, disturbing neurotransmission in the dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, and even acetylcholinergic systems. It is because of this broad action, and the resulting unwanted side-effects, that while the tricyclins remain effective and economically attractive agents in the treatment of many depressions, they are considered less friendly than the serotonin re-uptake inhibitors. New designer drugs are now appearing that precisely engage both the serotoninergic and noradrenergic systems but without the troublesome side-effects of the older tricyclic antidepressants. (see PROZAC; BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS; LITHIUM) (IP)

SEROSTATUS: Status of infected persons, either sero-positive or sero-negative to tests. (JA)

SETI (SEARCH FOR EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE): An astronomic project in which the skies are meticulously scanned for electromagnetic signals which may indicate the presence of intelligent life elsewhere in the galaxy. Pioneered and popularized by Carl Sagan, SETI continues and has expanded to include SETI@home in which special screensavers can utilize unused power from private desktop computers to aid the search for alien broadcasts. (See ALIEN LIFE) (MP)

SEVEN DEADLY SINS: In theology, the sins of anger, pride, lust, envy, covetousness, gluttony and sloth. (See SIN) (MP)

SEVEN LAWS OF NOAH: A basic set of laws which, according to Jewish tradition, were given to Noah and his family after the Flood. One opinion in the Talmud holds that 6 of these laws were earlier given to Adam. Immediately after the Flood, Noah and his family were the only humans on earth, and so, this set of Seven Laws has global implications according to Talmudic theory. This set of laws was mentioned in the Talmud to explain two areas outside of the framework of Jewish observance: a) the framework of the Jewish people before having received the Torah, b) the framework within which the rest of the world functions. Because each of these seven laws finds parallels in the laws of the Torah, the Seven Laws of Noah thus serve as a common ground between the observance of the Jews and that of the rest of the world, according to this theory. (AG)

SEVEN WONDERS: The ancient monuments hailed as the Seven Wonders of the World are the Pyramids at Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Pharos Lighthouse at Alexandria. (See CULTURAL HERITAGE) (MP)

SEWAGE: Liquid or solid refuses, either domestic or industrial waste carried off in sewers. (JA)

SEWAGE EFFLUENT: Effluent from any sewerage system or sewage disposal works including sullage from open drains (JA)

SEWERAGE: The connected system of pipes, plants, infrastructure and activities associated with the collection, treatment and disposal of sewage. Sewerage should thus not be confused with the sewage it contains. The roles of sewerage are to remove sewage from people, to protect natural water resources and to minimize pollution with the aid of sewage processing and treatment. (See SEWAGE) (MP)

SEX: (Latin sexus 'sex') the sum of the peculiarities of structure, function and chromosomal characteristics that distinguishes a male from a female organism. (See GENDER; HOMOSEXUAL; TRANSSEXUAL; SEXISM; SEXUAL DIMORPHISM; SEXUAL INTERCOURSE) (IP)

SEX CHROMOSOMES: The X and Y chromosomes in human beings that determine the sex of an individual. Females have two X chromosomes in diploid cells; males have an X and a Y chromosome. (DM)

SEX DETERMINATION: Determination of the sex of a fetus in utero. (DM)

SEX PRESELECTION: Choosing the sex of a child prior to conception. (DM)

SEXISM: All of the actions and attitudes that relegate individuals of either sex to a secondary and inferior status in society. Sexist attitudes represent a form of social immaturity because individuals are stereotyped according to gender rather than being judged on individual merit. (See RACISM). (IP)

SEXUAL ABUSE: illegal sex acts rape, sexual assault or sexual molestation - usually performed against a minor by a parent, guardian, relative or acquaintance. The long-term psychological effect can be devastating, especially if the victim is a child. (See SEXUAL HARASSMENT) (IP)

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM: See SEX.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT: a type of discrimination consisting of persistent torment, typically but not necessarily at the place of employment. The unsolicited attention comprises of sexual advances, requests for sexual favors and other unwelcome verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. Sexual harassment is prohibited by Federal law. (See SEXUAL ABUSE) (IP)

SEXUAL IDENTITY: An individual’s biologically the expression of one’s sexuality at any particular point in time. To what extent one’s sexuality is shaped by, and changes in response to the surrouXUAL BEHAVIOR RATING SCALE). (IP)

SEXUAL INTERCOURSE: See COITUS.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION : Also called sexual preference. A clear disposition and desire for sexual relations with a person of one sex rather than the other; that is, an established pattern of sexual interest, and in most cases sexual activity, directed towards members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes. Institutional control mandating that all expressions of sexuality have to be channeled through heterosexual patterns has caused much gratuitous violence and oppression of lesbians and gay men. Cultural structures and attitudes dictating compulsory heterosexuality reveal biological ignorance and human intolerance. (See HETEROSEXUAL; HOMOSEXUAL; HOMOPHOBIA) (IP)

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Reproduction that occurs as a result of the interaction between the two sexes. In plants, sexual reproduction occurs when a female egg cell is fertilized by a male generative cell from a pollen grain. Examples of sexually reproduced plants are corn, wheat and sorghum. (DM)

SEXUALITY: The part that sex plays in human relations. As highly socialized animals, sexuality has a biological importance far beyond its essential procreative purpose and is the reason why women are sexually receptive throughout their menstrual cycles; that is, during fertile and infertile periods. Because the pleasures of sex are largely disconnected from the reproductive purpose, human sexuality affects how we love, how we view ourselves and how we adjust socially. (See SEX; SEXUAL IDENTITY) (IP)

SHALOM: ‘Peace’ in the Hebrew language, often used in greeting, as in shalom aleichem (‘peace be with you’). The similarity between the words for peace in Hebrew (‘shalom’) and Arabic (‘salãm’) are perhaps illustrative of the shared history and brotherhood of the Jewish and Muslim peoples. (See SALAAM, SHANTI, PEACE) (MP)

SHAMAN: A traditional healer, especially of North Asian origin. The origin of the word "Shaman" is not clear. In Pali, "samana" is a term for a Buddhist monk, and there are several terms resembling "Shaman" in the languages of northern Asia. The north Asian healer who seeks to bring physical and spiritual relief using traditional cures and chants was found to be similar to the functioning of traditional healers in other parts of the world, and so, the term has become generalized to include practitioners of traditional form of healing (especially those which combine physical and spiritual aspects) in various parts of the world. In many shamanic traditions, healing is closely associated with seeing visions, and so, part of the healing method includes techniques which cause the shaman to experience a vision. (AG)

SHANTI: Shanti is tranquility, or peace, a word known and expressed across the Indian subcontinent. (See TRANQUILITY, AHIMSA, SALAAM, SHALOM, PEACE) (MP)  

SHANTY-TOWN: Dilapidated housing and home-made shelters in the fringe areas of cities, resulting from urbanization combined with poverty. Shanty-towns and squatter settlements are less developed than adjacent urban areas, often without proper sanitation, waste collection, water, heating, security or opportunity. (See SLUMS, SQUATTER, FRINGE DWELLERS, URBANIZATION, SUSTAINABLE CITY) (MP)

SHAREWARE: Shareware and freeware are the distribution of software or open-source materials on a shared-for-all basis. Unlike freeware, shareware programs often only offer limited function or have a time-out mechanism unless the software is purchased. (See SOFTWARE) (MP)

SI UNITS: The internationally recognized standards for scientific measurement are the ‘Système International d’ Unités’ (or ‘SI Units’). (See SCALE, MEASUREMENT) (MP)

SIDDHA: System of South Indian medicine. This system makes extensive use of metallic and mineral mixtures for treatments. (AG)

SIDGEWICK, HENRY: (1838-1900) Victorian philosopher. His work, Outlines of the History of Ethics for English Readers (1886), is still useful today. Bioethicists might profitably read it to deepen their understanding of the background to their profession. (FL)

SIDS: See SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME.

SIGN: (Latin: signum) A sign is a symbol, word, picture or action which suggests the existence of an object, fact, concept or other information. Signification refers to the production of a sign by linking together the signifier (symbol or word) to the signified (the object or concept being described). In medicine, a sign is any objective evidence indicating the presence of disease. In law, to sign is to affix your signature to a document which becomes evidence of a binding agreement or contract between two parties. To sign is also to use the gestures which comprise sign language for the deaf. Public information signs or signposts should be encouraged to be educational, convey environmental information, warn of dangers, and promote ethical norms of behavior. (See SEMANTICS, SEMIOTICS, DEFINITION) (MP)

SIGNIFICANCE: 1. Relevance, importance or the presence of meaningful consequences. For example in environmental impact assessment, the significance of an impact should be estimated for parameters alongside estimates of magnitude and distribution. 2. Statistical significance, such as alpha (α) and p-value, are about the potential for experimental errors. (See STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE, SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL) (MP)

SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL: Significance level refers to the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis, denoted alpha (α) and usually equated with p-value. The significance level can be chosen by the researcher, commonpercent chance of error). (See STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE, STATISTICAL POWER, TYPE I ERROR, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE) (MP)

SIGNIFICANT DIGITS: The significant digits of a measurement are the nonzero digits and any zeros between, but not leading zeroes and not trailing zeroes unless there is a decimal point. (MP)

SIGHT: See VISION.

SIKH: (from the Panjabi word "sikhna", meaning "studying, learning"). Religious tradition established by Guru Nanak (1469-1539). Ten religious teachers are honored in Sikh tradition. Of these Guru Nanak is the first, and Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708) is the tenth. It was the decision of Guru Gobind Singh that the "Granth" would function as Guru after him (see Guru Granth Sahib). Sikh tradition places emphasis on universal brotherhood,the unity of God, and forbids alcohol. Vegetarianism is not required, but is widely practiced. (AG)

SILICON CHIP: See MICROCHIP.

SILICOSIS: A disease which maybe caused by long-term exposure to dust containing silicon compounds. High risk industries are: quarrying for granite, slate and sandstone; mining hard coal, gold, tin and copper; stone masonry and sand blasting; and glass and pottery work. When the silicon particles are inhaled they accumulate in the alveoli in the lungs where some remain and others move out into the connective tissue around the respiratory bronchioles and blood vessels close to the pleura that are responsible for the smooth inflation of the lungs. Larger fibers may form asbestos bodies consisting of cellular material, protein and iron deposits which are surrounded by chronic inflamed tissue due to ineffectual phagocytosis. Progressive fibrosis risk obliterating the blood vessels and respiratory bronchioles causing fibrous adhesions in the pleura which eventually fix the lungs to the chest wall. At this advanced stage gaseous exchange is drastically reduce risking pulmonary hypertension and heart failure. Asbestos-related diseases usually develop after a latent period of 10 to 20 years from exposure but can be much sooner. The types of asbestos associated with risk are crocidalite (blue asbestos), chrysolite (white asbestos) and amosite (brown asbestos). Mesothelioma is cancer of the pleura linked with previous exposure to asbestos dust and may develop after varying duration of exposure to asbestos; for example, 3 months to 60 years with the latent period between exposure and the appearance of symptoms ranging from 10 to 40 years.

The link between inhaled asbestos and fibrosis has only in relatively recent times been studied and occupational risk factors assessed. Contributing factors to the disease's progression include genetic predisposition to lung disease, high concentrations of pollutants in the air, long exposure to asbestos and other pollutants, and tobacco smoking. (See METASTASIS, CANCER, SMOKING) (IP)

SIMIANS: The monkey species including the great apes. (JA)

SIMPLEXITY: 1. Simplexity is an obsolete word for ‘simplicity’. 2. It has been revived by Jack Cohen and Ian Stewart to mean the occurrence (or ‘emergence’) of large-scale simplicity arising from a complex system of rules - similar to ‘antichaos’ simple behavior in complicated systems. Examples include pi, theorems, laws of nature. Simplexity is also referred to as ‘regular emergence’ (‘super emergence’ is expressed in ‘complicity’). (See SIMPLICITY, COMPLICITY, COMPLEXITY, EMERGENT PROPERTIES) (MP)

SIMPLICITY: Ease of prediction and economy of concepts. The ‘Grand Theory of Everything’ is the search for ultimate simplicity. (See SIMPLEXITY, PARSIMONY, REDUCTIONIST, COMPLEXITY) (MP)

SIMULATION MODELLING: See MODEL TYPES.

SIN: Ethically or morally wrong actions, or the omission of actions which ought to be taken. Sinful action or inaction often harms others and may be in violation of natural, human or divine law. Estrangement from religion and God is often considered a sin, and religious philosophy provides guidelines for avoidance and sometimes forgiveness of sin. (See SEVEN DEADLY SINS, ORIGINAL SIN) (MP)

SINGLE CELL PROTEINS: Microscopic algal biomass is used in biotechnological process to produce more of pertinacious food materials for human beings.  Algal cells like Chlorella and Sprrulina. Cultured commercially for their food value, both in fish farming and for human beings. (JA)

SINGLE-GENE DISORDERS: Hereditary disorders caused by a single gene (e.g., Duchenne muscular dystrophy, retinoblastoma, sickle cell disease). Compare polygenic disorders.

SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM: SNPs Pronounced as "Snips" - there are large compendiums of the minute variations in nucleotides (DAN bases). Genetic Variations among these single DNA bases are known as SNPs or SNIPs . Mutation in a single base pair in DNA, used as markers to locate disease genes, non coding region of DNA and not expressed. Can be inherited. (JA+GK)

SINGLE PARENT FAMILY: A family made up of only one of both parents and its children. Today, in most single parent families the parent who is missing is the father. Most of these families are to be found in third world countries, where their occurrence is the result of a fatal incident: in many cases the father is missing because he has abandoned his family, in others because he has been killed during war or violence bursts of different sources. Single women can also decide to have children, in which case the single parent family is the result of a choice. (GK)

SINGULARITY: 1. A condition of peculiarity, remarkability or individuality; separate or singled out; unique or unitary. 2. Physics: A point where the space-time continuum folds infinitely on itself due to massive gravity, such as a ‘black hole’ or the ‘Big Bang’. (See BLACK HOLE, WORMHOLE, BIG BANG) (MP)

SITE-DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS: The modification of a DNA sequence at a location that is precisely controlled. (DM)

SITUATIONALISM: The position that ethical action must be judged in each situation guided by, but not directly determined by, rules. (DM)

SKEW: A measure of the degree of symmetry of a frequency distribution. Positive or negative skew indicate a bunching up of scores at one end of the scale and a smaller tail at the other end. (See MEASURES OF DISPERSION, KURTOSIS, NORMAL DISTRIBUTION) (MP)

SLBM: The nuclear or conventional Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) is the mobile underwater equivalent of land-launched ICBMs, for example the Polaris, Poseidon and Trident series missiles. (See NUCLEAR SUBMARINE, MISSILES, ICBM, MIRV) (MP)

SLIPPERY SLOPE: A phrase from bioethicists' professional slang, it refers to a situation in which one starts by doing something which is morally acceptable, or at worst borderline, and then "slides down the slope" towards doing things which are positively bad. Euthanasia in Holland, for example, is supposed to be allowed under only very strict conditions, including the stipulation that it must be only at the patient's request, and that the patient must be conscious. But it has been debated whether this has lead to a slippery slope, which has resulted in a situation where euthanasia has been performed on patients in coma, and on neonates. (FL)

SLOTH: Tropical, slow moving, tree dwelling, Eutherian mammals of the order Xenartha (also known as Edentata). Three-fingered sloths are in the family Bradypodidae. Two-fingered sloths are in the family Choloepidae. (RW)

SLUMS: Overcrowded, underdeveloped areas of housing occupied by the poor, unemployed and unemployable. Ghettos and the ‘urban jungle’ are often irly integrate minority groups, cope with rapid urbanization or provide avenues of escape from poverty. (See SHANTY-TOWN, FRINGE DWELLERS, SUSTAINABLE CITY, STANDARD OF LIVING) (MP)

SMALL ARMS: Euphemistic term for automatics, semi-automatics, hand-guns and other handheld weapons which cause innumerable individual instances of killing, terror, threat and theft across the world every day. Much ethically-debatable wealth has been acquired by military-industrial sectors of nations such as the USA, UK, France, Russia, and China who have been among major world-wide distributors of small arms. (See AUTOMATIC WEAPONS, BALLISTICS, NON LETHAL WEAPONS, DISARMAMENT) (MP)

SMALLPOX: A viral disease capable of mass destruction, 400,000 people killed in Europe during 19^th century, contagious, causes prolonged fever and vomiting, prevention by Vaccination (vacca = cow, encowment). (See JENNER, EDWARD). (JA)

SMART CARD: Credit card-sized computer intelligence. Smart cards contain a microchip which can store, process and even radio-receive information. They are used for digital cellphone identification, unscrambling subscriber broadcasts, fingerprint storage, medical records, discouraging fraud and of course making credit transactions. Smart card proliferation has provoked ethical debate concerning personal privacy and the over-reliance of humans on technology. (MP)

SMART DRUGS: So-called "smart" drugs are tablets which can be bought over the internet or are sold mixed in combination as drinks at clubs and festivals. They contain nutrients, drugs and hormones including, for example, amino acids, enzymes, nootropics (brain metabolism heighterners), choline and acetylcholine precursors (brain neurotransmitters), pyrrolidine derivatives, vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), hydergine (adrenergic with psychotropic action), herbs, vitamins and glucose. These cocktails are marketed as 'enhancers' of memory, cognition, learning and intelligence. Although some of these drugs have been used for the treatment of senility and Alzheimer’s, there have been scant or no clinical trials of them in various combinations and nothing is known about the risks or benefits of taking such cocktails, especially in otherwise healthy individuals. (IP+MP)

SMART DUST: A new technology which has arisen from wireless communication and the miniaturization of electronics. ‘Smart dust’ is comprised of many small ‘motes’, individual sensors or microprocessors able to form an autonomous wireless network enabling integrated ‘swarm intelligence’ and other emergent properties. Smart dust motes and sensor networks are already commercially-available, even having an open-source microprocessor operating system called TinyOS. Motes spread across a landscape can already monitor almost anything, from environmental conditions, climate and ecological data to the passage of traffic, infrared movement, audio monitoring, and military intelligence. Ethical concerns have been raised about the safety of smart dust technology, for example possibilities of integrated autonomous weapons, environmental litter, and inhalation of the dust. Privacy concerns must also be foremost in the public mind when it comes to sensor networks and smart dust. Likely developments in the technology of motes are solar power, kinetic power and locomotion through air, land and water. Future progress in nanotechnology or molecular electronics may bring the size of motes from a couple of millimeters across down to invisible scales. Smart dust has been envisaged as a new global information layer connecting the internet to the physical world. (See SENSOR NETWORKS, ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK, SWARM INTELLIGENCE, MICROCHIP, MOTES, BUG, NANOBOT, ASSEMBLER, NANOTECHNOLOGY, MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS, BIG BROTHER) (MP)
  
SMART MISSILE: See AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS.

SMELL: See OLFACTION.

SMITH, ADAM: See CAPITALISM.

SMOG: a combination of smoke and fog in the atmosphere which can in certain industrial environments becomes an extremely toxic mixture due to the inclusion of chemical pollutants existing in air of low quality. (See PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG) (IP)

SMOKING: the deliberate inhalation of noxious fumes or irritating particulate matter from, typically, the burning of tobacco, marijuana, crack cocaine and other "smokable" substances. That cigarette smoking is hazardous is supported by a plethora of scientific evidence, in which cigarette smokers have a) substantially higher rates of death from disabilities such as lung cancer, emphysema, chronic bronchitis and coronary disease b) women who smoke during pregnancy risk giving birth to babies of low birth weight where the deleterious effects of smoking extend into the neonatal period because the habit significantly influences lactation. Epidemiological studies have also demonstrated that passive smoking increases the incidence of respiratory disease among non-smoking members of families of smokers. Most western societies ban the sale of cigarettes to minors and follow a policy of mandatory display of health warnings on tobacco products. Smoking is also now prohibited in many airlines, restaurants, office buildings and other public places, which sometimes have dedicated areas for smokers. Typically, the drugs inhaled such as nicotine, cannabis and cocaine are highly addictive thus it is a big ask for the addicted to quit even if strongly motivated to do so. Increasingly smokers succumbing to tobacco-related diseases, or their families, are successfully suing tobacco companies for damages. (See PASSIVE SMOKING, QUIT SMOKING, ADDICTION, COCAINE HYDROCHLORIDE, NICOTINE, CANNABIS, INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION, LOW BIRTH WEIGHT, SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME, XENOBIOTIC). (IP+MP)

SNPS: See SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM.

SNIPs: See SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM.

SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES: approaches that see human behavior as a manifestation of underlying mental configurations. In the modern context, the discipline has its roots in animal behavioral studies and avoids notions of genetic determinism. (see HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY AND GENETIC DETERMINISM) (IP)

SOCIAL CLASS: See CLASS, CASTE SYSTEM.

SOCIAL DARWINISM: ‘Social Darwinism’ is a domain of social philosophy based on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theories, developed by sociologist Herbert natural selection in biology and the evolution of human tructures, elitism and eugenics. (See CULTURAL EVOLUTION, MEMETICS, NATURAL SELECTION, EVOLUTION) (MP)

SOCIAL INFERTILITY: See INFERTILITY.

SOCIAL STATISTICS: See CENSUS.

SOCIALISM: The core idea of socialism, in its democratic form, is that the working classes; that is, the majority, should form an extensive system of government which aims at securing all citizens the right to the equal satisfaction of vital needs. The purpose of socialist health care policy, for example, is to provide the citizens with all the medical treatments and other health-related services that they genuinely need. In this model all aspects of health care policy-making should be controlled democratically; that is, by the representatives of the people. Private citizens can often make ethical decisions when it comes to choices between treatment and non-treatment, or between two alternative lines of therapy. However, these decisions take place in the framework of a centrally controlled health-care system where no ones needs are allowed, in theory, to trump anybody else's. (See COMMUNITARIANISM; LIBERTARIANISM; LIBERAL UTILITARIANISM; UTILITARIANISM; DEMOCRACY) (IP)

SOCIETY: 1. an enduring and co-operating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another. 2. a community or broad grouping of people having common tradition, institutions and collective activities and interests; for example, the societal approach to bioethics takes into consideration whole communities, their culture or natural environment and long-term effects of decisions on matters of value. (IP)

SOCIOBIOLOGY: the study of the biological basis of social behavior in animals, including human beings. Viewing social behavior from a biological standpoint offers insights into behaviors such as sexism, nepotism, altruism, parenting and conflict. The contribution of E.O. Wilson was crucial to the development of the science as previously sociobiology was a loose amalgam of evolutionary theory, ecology and animal behavior. (see SOCIOLOGY, SPERM COMPETITION, HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY) (IP)

SOCIOGRAM: A graphical representation of the relationships among a group of people. (See MODELING) (MP)

SOCIOLOGY : the branch of science devoted to the development, nature and laws of human society. (see SOCIOBIOLOGY and HUMAN BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY) (IP)

SOCIOLOGY OF MEDICINE: The social structure of medical institutions or the medical profession. (DM)

SOCRATES: (469-399 BC) A Greek philosopher, the teacher of PLATO (q.v.) Socrates spent his days discussing philosophy in the marketplace in Athens. His Socratic method , of teaching by asking questions and bringing out the latent knowledge of his students, might be profitably adopted by academic bioethicists and by clinical ethics who lead physicians and nurses in clinical discussions. He was eventually condemned to death on three charges: denying the gods of Athens, introducing new gods, and corrupting the youth. His defence, the Apology, along with the Crito and the Phaedo, all dialogues written by Plato which describe the period leading up to his execution, are classics of ethical philosophy. In the Phaedo he argues that death is better than life, because in life we know only illusory shadows, but in death we come face-to-face with truth, which is what philosophers have been seeking all along. Some advocates of suicide and euthanasia have tried to honour Socrates by naming a society after the hemlock, which Socrates was sentenced to drink. But this is a misunderstanding, because Socrates was against suicide. He argued that even though the next life is better than this one, we have no right to leave this life early. We belong to the gods, who sent us here, and we must remain here until we are forced to leave.
Socrates in the Phaedo, advocates REINCARNATION (q.v.), but in a cruder and perhaps more primitive version that that of Hinduism and Israeli Kabala. He also believed in a kind of god, a daemon, which was his conscience and told him what was right and wrong for him to do. Although philosophy is sometimes thought of as a totally rational, secular pursuit, these are two examples of how great philosophers have mixed rationality with mysticism. (FL)

SOE REPORT: See STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT.

SOFT ENERGY: Renewable and sustainable energy sources such as solar, wind, ocean and geothermal energies. Soft Energy Paths by Amory Lovins focused attention on the social and technological structure of the energy system. (See SOFT TECHNOLOGY, RENEWABLE ENERGY, HARD ENERGY) (MP)

SOFT POWER: ‘Soft’ powable to promote persuasion and legitimacy. Traditional ‘hard’ pow increase the influence of a country (examples perhaps include the Netherlands, Scandinavia and Canada) beyond its political or military capacity. (See DOVE, HARD POWER) (MP)

SOFT TECHNOLOGY: Technology which has low or negligible resource use, efficient energy consumption and minimal pollution, often involved with sustainability, renewable resources, green science, education, health, services and information industries. Soft technology is associated with ‘soft power’ and ‘soft energy’. (See HARD TECHNOLOGY, SOFT POWER, SOFT ENERGY, CLEAN PRODUCTION) (MP)

SOFTWARE: The programming (non-hardware) side of computers; including computer languages, operating systems, programs, computer viruses and the Internet. Software may be free (freeware), a limited demo (shareware), illegal (pirate copy) or a legally purchased program. As an aside, software enthusiasts also use the slang ‘wetware’ to mean the brain and human users/designers of the system. (See PROGRAM, SHAREWARE, HARDWARE) (MP)

SOFTWOODS: Soft and easily-worked but strong timbers, or the gymnosperm coniferous trees yielding such wood. Softwoods such as pine trees comprise the majority of building timbers, and also produce resins, tannins and turpentine. (See HARDWOODS) (MP)

SOLAR ENERGY: See RENEWABLE ENERGY.

SOLIDARITY: (Latin: solidus "solid") Union or fellowship between members of a group or between peoples of the world. Individuals in solidarity with one another are firmly united by common responsibilities and interests, and undivided in opinion, purpose and action. (See UNITED, UNITY) (MP)

SOLITUDE: (Latin: solus "alone") An experience in which you are solitary, secluded or alone. It need not be lonely in solitude if there is internal connection and comfort with your own company. Human company is necessary to wellbeing, but so is enjoyment of your own inner resources - without seeking or pining for others, planning social events, or using such things as television in avoidance of solitude. (See LONELINESS) (MP)

SOLSTICE: (Latin: solstitium from sol 'sun' + stit 'make stand') Either times of the year (summer or winter) when the Sun is furthest from the equator or vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (21 December) or the Tropic of Cancer (21 June) and appears to pause before returning. (see EQUINOX) (IP)

SOLVENT ABUSE: The deliberate inhalation of vapors from solvents, thinners, adhesives, lighter gas or petrol products, for their intoxicating or narcotic effects. Drug dependency and tolerance are usually accompanied by brain, liver and kidney damage, and possibly accidental death. Solvent abuse is typically linked to poverty and social alienation as seen in the US with black street kids sniffing glue or Australian Aboriginal children sniffing petrol. It is a terrible indictment on our societies that people should be both so desperate for escape and so poverty-stricken that they resort to such dangerous behavior. (See JUNKIE, ADDICTION). (IP+MP)

SOMA: 1.(Greek: soma "body") The body of an organism, as distinct from the germ cells. (See SOMATIC CELLS). 2. (Sanskrit) An intoxicating plant juice sometimes ingested as a drug in traditional Vedic rituals. 3. A tranquillizing drug used in Aldous Huxley’s fictional dystopia Brave New World as a willing form of social control. (See HUXLEY) (MP)

SOMATIC CELLS: Any cells in the body except reproductive cells and their precursors. (Soma = body) cells found in the body of an organism - Other than germ cell. (DM, JA)

SOMATIC-CELL GENE THERAPY: A technique that involves injection of 'healthy genes' into the bloodstream of a patient to cure or treat a hereditary disease or similar illness. A clinical application of gene therapy may be found in the treatment of genetically determined diseases such as thalassemia or cystic fibrosis. (See GENE THERAPY; IN UTERO GENE THERAPY; GERM-LINE GENE THERAPY) (IP)     

SOMATIC HYBRIDS: See CELL FUSION.

SOMATIC NUCLEAR TRANSFER: See NUCLEAR TRANSFER.

SOMATOTROPHIN: Growth hormone. (See bST, HGH). (DM)

SONAR: (Abbreviation for ‘SOund Navigation And Ranging’) Sonar is the utilization of echo-location using underwater sound waves, such as by whales and submarines. (See LOW FREQUENCY ACTIVE SONAR, RADAR) (MP)

S O S : An international distress signal or call for help. It is signified in Morse Code as repeats of three dots, three dashes, three dots ( - - - ). Although chosen for its simplicity of transmission, folk etymology takes it to be an abbreviation of "Save Our Souls". (IP & MP)

SOUND: sound starts when some mechanical disturbance produces vibrations. These vibrations are transmitted through some medium (usually air) in the form of tiny collisions among the molecules in that medium. If the acoustic energy is sufficiently strong, these vibrations may trigger a chain of events culminating in an auditory sensation. Acoustic energy may be transmitted through any medium as long as its constituent molecules are sufficiently close together to collide with one another when they are set in motion. The more densely these molecules are packed, the faster sound will travel through them. For example, at room temperature airborne sound travels 340 meters per second but in the denser medium of water, sound travels about 1,500 meters per second. (See HEARING, SENSES) (IP)

SOUTH: A term used in international political economics to refer to the Third World, consisting of the developing countries which are comparatively less advanced in terms of wealth and welfare. These countries are generally to be found in the Southern Hemisphere, for example Africa, South America and parts of Asia. (See DEVELOPING NATIONS, NORTH, THIRD WORLD) (MP)

SOUTHERLY BUSTER: a surge of cool air that moves rapidly northwards along the Australian East Coast. It is often accompanied by squalls and rapid drops in temperature (see DUSTSTORMS & PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG). (IP)

SOUTHERN OSCILLATION INDEX: refers to high and low fluctuations in ocean currents, atmospheric pressure, wind and rainfall in the equatorial Southern Pacific regions and are caused by differences in ocean temperatures between the east and west tropical Southern Pacific. Fluctuations in the current’s  intensity are called Southern Oscillation or El Nino -Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. Researchers have yet to discover the causes of abrupt climatic shifts, and until they do the situation leaves us in limbo with regard to climatic predictions. It is possible that large-scale reorganizations of the ocean’s  circulation following atmospheric triggers may be invs and change the weather patterns that depend on it. (see EL NINO -SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON & LA NINA -SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON) (IP)

SPACE: Often generalized to mean the environment outside our cozy Earth and its habitable atmosphere, ‘space’ is in fact the fundamental scalar structure within which elements of the universe are organized. Space was demonstrated by Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity (1905) to be linked to the dimension of time, and by his General Theory (1915) to be ‘curved’ around matter. Space may be expanding, dragging the galaxies away form each other. A snapshot of space is three dimensional, but the space-time continuum has four dimensions; up/down (north/south, y-axis), left/right (east/west, x-axis), in/out (altitude/depth, z-axis) and before/after (time dimension). (See SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM, SCALE) (MP)

SPACE DEBRIS: The Earth's orbit is increasingly littered with disintegrating pieces of past space missions, satellites and spent parts, a hazardous and long-lasting collection of high-velocity projectiles known as space debris or 'space junk'. Although the risk is minimal of death from descending debris (such as the US space station Skylab which crash-landed over Australia), there may be significant impact risk to astronauts, whether during spacewalk or inside the Space Shuttle or International Space Station. Regulation and restriction of such pollution will leave space a less dangerous place for the explorations of our descendants. (See INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION) (MP)

SPACE EXPLORATION: From the first satellite launched into orbit (Sputnik 1957), the first man in space (Yuri Gagarin 1961), through the Apollo missions to the Moon (Neil Armstrong 1969), to modern satellite communications and the International Space Station, an intrinsic human pioneering urge has been at play. Exploration of the solar system with probes, often in the search for life, has now included most planets and many significant satellites. Examples include Saturn (e.g. Voyager, Cassini), Jupiter (e.g. Voyager, Galileo, Pioneer), Venus (e.g. Venera probes , Pioneer Venus) and the exploration of Mars (e.g. Mariner, Viking, Sojourner, Global Surveyor , Pathfinder , Odyssey, Express and Nozomi missions). The Space Shuttle has  proved a boon for transportation and experimentation, despite the hazards epitomized by the Space Shuttle Challenger (1986) and Columbia (2003) disasters. America has not been the only country to use space shuttle technology, for example the Soviet shuttle Buran . Concern must be raised over US plans to weaponize satellites or space vehicles. Space exploration agendas include the step-by-step assembly of the International Space Station. The search for extraterrestrial signals continues, with the use of ground and orbital optical and radio-telescopes and projects such as SETI. Projecting far forward to when the Sun finally expands to engulf the Earth’s orbit, the biosphere (perhaps even the descendents of humans) will either have to move the Earth, or colonize space to survive. Future technology may not find it so hard to colonize space - eiigital life, or replicating interstellar spacecraft sometimes referred to as Von-Neumann probes. These probes, perhaps containing the genetic blueprint for restructuring the intelligence (or whonet) that created it, may be able to colonize the known universe relatively quickly using the power of exponential increase by replication. (See EARTH FROM SPACE, INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION) (MP)

SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM: Albert Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity calls for time to be the fourth dimension of three-dimensional space. This is together known as the ‘space-time continuum’ or ‘four-dimensional continuum’. (See SPACE, SINGULARITY, MATTER) (MP)

SPACE-TIME MODEL: A model of a process which forecasts changes to a variable in space and in time, e.g. distribution of population, spread of disease etc. (MP)

SPACE WEAPONS: It may not be a great step from the peaceful conquest of space to the conquest of the Earth from space - obviously the rocket and missile industries are very close. The US has discussed proposals for a ‘Space Corps’ (to complement the Army, Navy and Marine Corps) and weaponizing the Space Shuttle (to shoot down communications and spy satellites). Descendents of the ‘Star Wars’ missile defense system may involve weaponized satellites, for example with earth-targeting lasers. There must be debate and concerted effort now if space is to be preserved as a weapons-free zone of peace and unity as inspired by the International Space Station and the fragile Earth viewed from space. (See MISSILE DEFENSE, LASER WEAPONS, NANOTECHNOLOGY WEAPONS, SPACE EXPLORATION) (MP)

SPACESHIP EARTH: See EHRLICH, PAUL.

SPC: Single Cell Proteins e.g. Algal cells like Chlorella and Sprrulina. Cultured commercially for their food value. (JA)

SPECIALIZATION: See OVERSPECIALIZATION, MULTIDISCIPLINARY.

SPECIATION: Evolutionary process involving the formation of a new species. (See SPECIES, EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION, PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM) (MP)

SPECIES: Taxonomic category subordinate to a genus composed of individuals with common characteristics that distinguish them from other groups of the same taxonomic level; in sexually reproducing organisms, a group of interbreeding natural populations that are genetically distinct from other such groups. The most objective level in the classification of organisms. For extant, sexual species, a species is defined as the collection of individuals capable of breeding among themselves and producing viable offspring. This definition has problems. For example, in captivity it produces a wider definition, i.e. smaller number of 'species', because of successful breeding between different 'wild species', e.g. successful breeding between closely related species of wild duck. For organisms that reproduce asexually, e.g. many species of dandelions (Taraxacum spp.) and brambles (Rubus spp.), and for fossils, a more subjective criterion of morphological similarity is used. (DM, JA, MR)

SPECIES BARRIER: The idea that there is a natural barrier between species that preserves their integrity or identity. This idea has no known foundation in biology. The parameters that limit the ranges and variations of species are fluid and variable, and species exist as reproductive communities rather than as separate creatures. (DM)

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION: See POPULATION DISTRIBUTION.

SPECIES INTEGRITY: The idea that a species has integrity as a biological unit. This would have to be based on the identity of the genetic material carried by the species. However, it is not clear how a species might be defined genetically, and this issue is the subject of debate among those seeking to understand the nature of species. (DM)

SPECIESISM: Term coined by Richard Ryder to be suggestive of 'racism' and 'sexism'. An action or attitude is speciesist if it treats or considers a non-human to deserve particular (lesser) treatment purely by virtue of its not being HUMAN (q.v.). So, for example, while it could be argued that it would not be speciesist to deny chimpanzees the right to vote in elections while allowing this right to humans (on the grounds that chimpanzees lack the necessary mental capacities to make such choices) it could be argued that it would be speciesist to hold that chimpanzees but not humans may be used in painful medical experiments (since humans and chimpanzees probably have much the capacity to feel PAIN (q.v.)). (MR)

The term widely used by Peter Singer, in his arguments for animal rights. It is argued that preferring the good of the human species to that of others, is to be compared to sexism , preferring the good of one's own sex, and to racism , preferring the good of one's own race. It is sometimes argued that Darwinism proves that speciesism is wrong, because Darwin showed that the human species is not unique and separately created. The animals, indeed all of nature, and we are really one family. This argument, however, misses the point that Darwin's mechanism of evolution is predicated on the struggle for survival, in which each organism strives to survive and to reproduce, at the expense of others. Surely what is good for one's own species, at the expense of others, is good for one's own survival and ability to reproduce. So Darwinian evolution is predicated on the assumption that organisms are speciesist. (FL)

SPEECH RECOGNITION: Speech recognition refers to computer-comprehension of human language when spoken. Voice recognition can be used for security identification using individual accent, tone and speech patterns. More commonly it refers to the recognition of human speech for computer command and note dictation. Stages in the programming development of voice and speech recognition include phonetic recognition (matching pronunciation and filtering of nonsense like "um"), prosodic analysis (tone recognition), language models (sentence probability), syntactic analysis, semantic analysis, context evaluation, translation and speech synthesis. The progress of voice recognition software to consumer standard may increase the ease and diversity of written publishing. (See TRANSLATION SOFTWARE) (MP)

SPEED: 1. Velocity, or distance traveled per unit of time. Speed is one of the three major killers on the roads, along with drink-driving and fatigue. 2. The street name for amphetamine, a stimulant recreational drug. (See AMPHETAMINES). (IP+MP)

SPEED READING: See READING.

SPERM: The male reproductive cell, or gamete. Normal sperm have typically, for humans short tail symmetrically oval heads, stout midsections, and long tapering tails. (DM)

SPERM BANK: A place in which sperm are stored by cryopreservation for future use in artificial insemination. (DM)

SPERM COMPETITION: Where more than one male mates with a single female within a short period of time a fertilization contest, or sperm competition, is promoted. Sperm competition does occur in humans and has been a selective force in the evolution of certain human characteristics, in particular the common (monogamous, serially monogamous, polygamous, promiscuous, or a mixture of these) sexual inclinations of males and females. Thus fitness, as mediated by natural selection, is not limited simply to factors relating to the structure and function of a body but also includes complex social behaviors. (see SOCIOBIOLOGY; ADULTERY) (IP)

SPERMATOZOA: See SPERM.

SPINA BIFIDA: A congenital defect caused by the failure of the neural tube to close thus disrupting the normal development of the overlying vertebral arch rudiments so that they fail to fuse along the midline to enclose the vertebral canal. The resulting gap in the vertebral canal varies in degree with the clinical consequences ranging from mild to fatal. The condition occurs approximately 10 to 20 times per 1000 births. (see FOLIC ACID) (IP)

SPINOZA , B: (1634-1677) Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza was a Dutch Jew of Portuguese descent, who was expelled by the Jewish community, for reasons which have never been perfectly clear. Some interpreters regard him as a Jewish philosopher, by others as an atheist and by others as a Christian. His philosophy was a kind of PANTHEISM (q.v.). God has infinitely many attributes, of which Extension (the material) and Thought (the mental or spiritual) are only two. This means that in addition to matter and spirit, there are infinitely other different kinds of things. God is not personified in any way, but being infinite God includes everything, and does everything which it is possible to do. If there is something, which God does not do, that thing must be impossible. For if it were possible and God did not do it, this would be a limitation to God's infinity. Since God does everything, which is possible, there is no leeway for free choice, even on God's part. God does everything from absolute necessity. It naturally follows that we, who are merely aspects or what Spinoza calls modes of attributes of God, don't have free choice either, but do everything from necessity. This DETERMINISM (q.v.) leads to a mental acquiescence, an accepting attitude towards all that happens, and a willingness to forgive those who have hurt us, because we are aware that they acted with no free choice. (FL)

SPOUSAL NOTIFICATION: The reporting of a woman's abortion request to her spouse. (DM)

SPUTNIK: Heralding the age of access to space and its exploration, Sputnik I, launched in October 1957 from the Soviet Union, was the first monitored satellite launched into orbit by humans. (See SATELLITE, SPACE EXPLORATION, PIONEER, VOYAGER, INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION) (MP)

SQUATTER: A homeless person who takes up illegal residence on the private property of another person. (See FRINGE DWELLERS) (MP)

SS: (German: Schutzstaffel 'protection squad') Nazi party paramilitary group under Hitler in World War II, including the Gestapo, concentration camp officers and combat troops (the Waffen-SS). (See NUREMBERG TRIALS) (MP)

SSBN: See NUCLEAR SUBMARINE.

STAKEHOLDERS: Each person/group/institution/constituency likely to be affected by a decision and with a moral claim on the decision-maker. It reinforces one’s  obligation to make all reasonable efforts to foresee possible consequences and take reasonable steps to avoid unjustified harm to others. (JA)

STANDARD DEVIATION: A frequently used statistical measure of dispersion, the standard deviation is the ‘average’ distance of the individual data points from the mean. This ‘root mean square’ of the deviatioIANCE, MEASURES OF DISPERSION) (JA & MP)

STANDARD ERROR: The ‘standard error of the mean’ is the standard deviation of the sample means. (See STANDARD DEVIATION) (MP)

STANDARD OF LIVING: ‘Standard of living’ is a measure of living systems. The of life may include:
a) Basic needs: fresh water, food, shelter, energy, security;
b) Emotional needs