UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "T"s

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

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TACTICS: Tactics are localized techniques or stratagems, the immediate means to desired or strategic ends. Strategy is the larger-scale framework of direction and control. Military tactics include specific offensives or maneuvers in the presence of battle. The ethics ( jus ad bellum ) of tactics, the blunt end of war and peacekeeping, are matters of great concern. (See STRATEGY, JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, JUS AD BELLUM) (MP)

TAIGA: Northern hemisphere (Eurasia, North America) cold-temperate coniferous forest environment, habitat and ecological communities (evergreen conifers, pine, spruce, fir trees, mink, elk, wolf etc.) (See CONIFEROUS FOREST, TUNDRA) (MP)

TALMUD: The Talmud is a Jewish holy book, next in authority after the MISHNA (q.v.) The Talmud actually contains the Mishna, together with detailed commentaries on the Mishna, which are called the Gemarra . Just as the Mishna consists of Rabbinical attempts to explain what is unclear in the Bible, the Gemarra consists of later Rabbinical attempts to explain what is unclear in the Mishna. The Mishna is written in Hebrew. But most of the Gemarra was written in Babylon, after the Babylonians conquered the Land of Israel and forcefully exiled the Israeli people to various parts of the world. The Gemarra was written, therefore, in Aramaic, a language similar to Hebrew, which was the international language of much of the Middle East in those days. (FL)

TANAKH: The Jewish Scripture. The word Tanakh is an acronym (Torah+Nevi'im+Ketubim, i.e. Torah+Prophets+Writings). The concept of Tanakh differs from that of "Old Testament" in the Christian Bible, although two texts may appear quite similar. The traditional Jewish order of the text is based upon a tripartite division in which the category of "Writings" is a miscelanious category including Psalms, some historical books (such as Chronicles), and some books of wisdom literature (such as Ecclesiastes). The books of the Apocrypha are not included in the Tanakh. In addition, the authoritative language of the Tanakh is Hebrew. Translations into other languages are secondary. Finally, whereas the term "Old Testament" presupposes a New Testament, the Tanakh is self-contained from the Jewish perspective, and later books can at most serve as commentary to it. (AG)

TAO TE CHING: (Chinese: Classic of Tao "the Way" and Te "virtue") Philosophical Chinese text of Taoism, unsubstantiated authorship usually ascribed to Lao-Tse (alternate spellings Lao-zi or Lao Tzu), 6th Century BCE, possibly a composite of earlier philosophy from the 4th Century BCE. The Tao Te Ching promotes effortless harmony and spontaneity in accordance with the natural flows of the cosmos. The ornate style of the text leaves it open to varying interpretations. Taoism stands in general opposition to the ritual structure and moral discipline of Confucianism. (See TAOISM, LAO-TSE, CHUANG TZU) (MP)

TASTE: (Middle English tasten 'to taste'). The sense of perceiving different flavors in soluble substances. Taste buds are found in the papillae of the tongue, soft palate, pharynx and epiglottis and consist of small bundles of cells and nerve endings of the glosspharyngeal, facial and vagus nerves (cranial nerves VII, IX & X). Chemical substances in solution that enter the taste buds stimulate the nerve cells which transmit impulses to the thalamus of the brain and then to the taste area in the cerebral cortex where taste is perceived. There are four fundamental sensations of taste - sweet, sour, bitter and salt; however, this is probably an oversimplification because perception varies widely and many 'tastes' cannot be easily classified. (See SENSES). (IP)

TAXIS: the ability of a wide variety of microorganisms, simple animals and plants to respond to light, magnetic fields and chemical substances in the surrounding environment (see CHEMOTAXIS). (IP)

TAY-SACH’s DISEASE: a single gene disorder which destroys the insulating sheath around nerves and leads to death in infancy - is particularly common among Ashkenazi Jews as a consequence of the founder effect. (DM+DR)

T-DNA: transferred DNA; e.g., in the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens   a portion of its plasmid DNA is transferred on to a plant inducing the formation of a gall structure, a tumor like hard structure. (JA)

TEAMWORK: The coming together of an alliance or group of minds to collaborate, co-operatively work on a project, solve problems, negotiate, resolve conflict etc. Teamwork may involve a business or research team, a friendship group or marriage, may use techniques like brainstorming, group decision-support or the Delphi method, and may result in compromise or consensus. Whereas competition results in duplicated effort and lost efficiency, collaboration and cooperation ensure a certain balance and multiply the scale of possibilities. (See COLLABORATION, COLLECTIVE, COOPERATION, BRAINSTORMING, DELPHI METHOD, NEGOTIATION, MEDIATION, CONSENSUS, COMPROMISE, UNITY, MATESHIP, MARRIAGE) (MP)

TECHNOCRACY: Combining technology and democracy, the term technocracy was coined by William Henry Smyth to refer to democratic progress served by scientists and technicians. More recently its meaning has reversed and strengthened into a socio-political system controlled by 'rational' scientific, engineering and technological experts rather than true democratic principles. (See TECHNOCRAT, TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM) (MP)

TECHNOCENTRIC: A condition of social orientation around technology; the philosophical viewpoint giving central importance to human technology (including economic, industrial and urban living). Technocentrism is a reminder of the modern predicament of our created environment alienating us from nature and our origins. (See ANTHROPOCENTRIC, ECOCENTRIC, BIOCENTRIC) (MP)

TECHNOCRAT: One who believes in technological determinism and technocentric social organization, basing political opinions and decisions upon technological 'requirements' rather than human needs and humane values. (See TECHNOCRACY, TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM) (MP)

TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM: Term coined by Thorstein Veblen to describe deterministic faith in technological progress, in which socio-political decisions and development processes are controlled by technological capacity rather than philosophical or ethical value systems. Technological determinism may increase apathy and environmental risk-taking due to faith in the technological 'quick fix'. Social guidance and political restraint should determine the advancement of technology, rather than humans becoming controlled and ensnared by our own inventions. (See TECHNOCRACY, TECHNOCRAT, TECHNOCENTRIC) (MP)

TECHNOLOGY: The modern world makes it almost impossible to unlink scientific discovery from subsequent technological use of that information. Scientists cannot dodge ethical consideration of the implications and possible impacts of proposed research. Semi-permeable barriers to the development of technology include whether to do the science (research and development stage), whether to publish the information (academic journals and media editors), and the ethics of engineers (design, engineering and production stages). Defense, economics and scientific curiosity have typically been the drivers of technology. Technologies have beneficial or detrimental impacts on human and ecological wellbeing depending on how they are used. Many have been found too dangerous and had their production reduced, for example biochemical weapons, thalidomide, DDT, CFCs etc. But technology has a habit of only appearing in the public consciousness once already at the design or application stages. Genetic engineering is an example, despite potential for accidental damage to ecosystems and potential future misuse in the form of biological weapons. The first nuclear explosion was detonated despite fears that unknown upper limits to the chain reaction might ignite the atmosphere. Artificial life and nanotechnology may be the technologies of the future which pose the greatest threat to humankind, specifically due to their potential for replication in an unlimited chain reaction. If we had a desire to block the dangerous implications of these two technologies then molecular electronics may be one of the few remaining bottlenecks. It is generally difficult to prevent the emergence of new technologies - before they become unstoppable except by the laws of physics. In parts this is due to the fragmented nature of international research, including corporate alliances, secret defense science, different national laws, and the widespread electronic accessibility of information. One argument goes that since the emergence of global-scale dangerous technologies are inevitable, benign powers must develop some aspects of them first to ensure appropriate global defenses. The other argument says that we must oppose them entirely with the use of new instruments of global law and professional codes of ethics. (See ACCELERATING PACE OF CHANGE, TECHNOLOGICAL DETERMINISM, ENGINEERING ETHICS, SUSTAINABLE TECHNOLOGIES, VISIONARY COMPANY, MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS, NANOTECHNOLOGY WEAPONS, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, ROBOTICS) (MP)

TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT: The evaluation of a technology in terms of its efficacy and impact on society. (DM)

TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: The process of converting scientific knowledge into useful products. (DM)

TELAESTHESIA: See TELESTHESIA.

TELECOMMUTING: Working at home with the use of an internet connection to the workplace. (See VIDEO CONFERENCING) (MP)

TELECONFERENCING: See VIDEO CONFERENCING.

TELEOLOGICAL: Teleo (God) purpose oriented creation by God, beingness of human beings in the image of God, e.g. the purpose of the heart is to pump blood as opposed to Darwinism where the work of the heart is to pump blood. Genetic engineering alters the telos or being-ness of a being. (JA)

TELEOLOGY: A teleological explanation is explaining phenomena by their design, purpose, or final causes. A branch of moral philosophy dealing with cause and effect of an action, a belief that there are purposes and design in nature, consequently a belief in the existence of a Creator. Telos :end; the doctrine of ends, purpose or final causes e.g. The purpose of the heart is to pump blood to other parts of the body. Christians have used it to imply a design and purpose in creation by God, intrinsic value. (DM, JA)

TELEPATHY: (Greek: tele "far" + patheia "perception") The alleged ability to communicate thoughts and perceptions with another mind over a distance without the use of the sense organs. Traditionally scorned by scientific skeptics, a form of telepathy may conceivably be achieved through advances in cybernetics and wireless technology. Using implantable microchips grafted to the nervous system and a connection between two people with a wireless internet linkage, rudimentary telesthesia should be achievable, and potentially even the invisible bond of telepathic communication. Such research has been proposed and begun by the self-experimenting cybernetics pioneers Kevin and Irena Warwick. (See TELESTHESIA, CYBERNETICS, MICROCHIP IMPLANTS, PSYCHOKINESIS) (MP)

TELEPORTATION: The concept of Star Trek’s transportation beam has been a science fiction staple for many years, but the principle has also been worked upon by serious science, for example in IBM laboratories. The structure of an object could theoretically be mapped at an atomic level and converted into a coded signal for transmission at light speed, to be resurrected at the other end rather like a three-dimensional fax machine. The future advent of quantum computing combined with nanotechnology may provide the necessary technology. There would remain serious ethical doubts about the teleportation of living organisms. Leaving aside potential DNA mutations caused by copying errors, there would be philosophical questions as to what constitutes a continuous life-experience. There is no guarantee that the person at the other end would not just be a clone with your memories. From the perspective of Captain Kirk or Spock entering a teleportation device, each transfer may in fact be the death of their subjective existence. Current technology is far from this dilemma, with work rather being done at the atomic or quantum levels. Such research is nevertheless uncovering interesting questions, such as the tunnel effect in which information has been observed apparently moving faster than light. (MP)

TELESTHESIA: (Greek: tele "far" + aisthesis "sensation") Almost synonymous with telepathy, telesthesia is the ability to receive sensations or feelings from another person over a distance. This may be achievable through advances in cybernetics and wireless technology, with emotional states signaled between people via the internet. (See TELEPATHY) (MP)

TELEVISION (TV): TV is today so ubiquitous that it hardly needs defining to anyone in the world likely to be reading this. On the one hand it is a physical device which converts electrical impulses transmitted by radio waves or cable into audiovisual programs on a screen, first demonstrated by J. L. Baird in 1926 and broadcast into homes from the 1950s. On the other hand it is a massive medium of information distribution, a manipulator of emotions and a communications tool with immense potential for creating social change. The antenna skylines of most human settlements and the spread of popular icons such as the Simpsons are testament to the power of TV; perhaps more of this power could be today harnessed against human apathy and towards global awareness and ethical value systems. Control of the media is also control over human culture. The commercialization of TV has seen programming content reach new lows of pointless consumerism and violence, and the encroachment of entertainment into news and current affairs. The remote control also had a dramatic influence on viewing patterns, and by shortening attention spans has increased the tendency towards sensationalism and shallow treatment of subjects. Especially in the West, TV is a culturally sanctioned addiction. In addition to the costs of lost opportunity, prolonged watching may inhibit the development of active mental skills. Viewing requires minimal brain activity; a constant stream of input leaves little time for thinking or reflection. Unlike the internet, which involves motivation, or books which engage the imagination, TV is essentially a passive pursuit. The nature and content of television is changing, however. The transition to internet broadcasting and digital choice may increase viewer interactivity and the number of specialized channels, but may herald an end to the era of centralized direction and control of this means of mass education. (See VIOLENT MEDIA, PROPAGANDA, CULTURE JAMMING, INTERNET, SBS, TELEVISION ADDICTION, TELEVISION AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE) (MP)

TELEVISION ADDICTION: See TELEVISION AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE, INTERNET ADDICTION.

TELEVISION AS A TOOL FOR CHANGE: See TELEVISION, TELEVISION ADDICTION.

TELOMERASE: See TELOMERES, CLONING.

TELOMERE: See TELOMERASE, CLONING, LIFE EXTENSION.

TEMPERATE RAINFOREST: Moist closed-canopy evergreen forest in temperate climates. These mid-latitude rainforests usually have a simpler structure and composition than tropical rainforests, often with only a single canopy, a lower diversity of species, smaller-leaved slender trees, and ferns abundant but palms rare. Temperate rainforests may interface with subtropical, wet sclerophyll, broadleaf or evergreen mixed forests. In the Australian example most temperate rainforests are to be found in New South Wales, which also contains dry and subtropical rainforest types. They include cathedral-like cool temperate rainforests dominated by Antarctic Beech Nothofagus moorei or Pinkwood Eucryphia moorei , and warm temperate rainforests often dominated by Coachwood Ceratopetalum apetalum and Sassafras Doryphora sassafras . (See TROPICAL RAINFOREST) (MP)

TEMPERATURE: Temperature is a property of matter which measures the kinetic energy of particles resulting from the application of heat. All objects emit and absorb radiation, and are at a constant temperature when these are balanced. Temperature is measured by observing gas pressure or liquid expansion in a thermometer. The Celsius scale has the reference points of 0°C for freezing and 100°C for boiling point of water. The Fahrenheit scale has 32°F for freezing and 212°F for boiling. The Kelvin scale is widely used in science, beginning at absolute zero (0K = -273°C) with the same change per degree as the Celsius scale (thus 0°C = 273K). (See HEATING, THERMODYNAMICS, FAHRENHEIT, CELSIUS DEGREE) (MP)

TERATOGEN: any reproductive and /or developmental toxicant that induces structural malformations, metabolic or physiological dysfunction, or psychological/behavioral deficits in the offspring, either at birth or in any defined postnatal period (see TERATOLOGY & CONGENITAL MALFORMATION). (DM)

TERATOGENIC: Producing malformation in an embryo or fetus.

TERATOLOGY: from the Greek word teras meaning abnormal form , is the branch of science that deals with the causes, mechanisms, manifestations and prevention of congenital defects. (DM)

TERATOMA: A new and uncontrolled growth of cells and tissues that are the product of an abnormal fertilization without any potential to develop into an embryo proper or fetus. (DM)

TERMINAL SEDATION: The phrase came into usage as early as 1980s. also known as the end-of-life care, a legal alternative to assisted suicide/slow euthanasia. It is also known as the  “deliberate termination of awareness” If no other means of alleviating the pain exist then it is intended to simply relieve the pain effectively. (JA)

TETRAPLOIDY: Four complete sets of chromosomes per cell. Ten percent of spontaneous abortions show tri or tetraploidy of chromosomal aberrations, which are not viable. (See ABORTION). (GK)

TERRA NULLIUS: in Latin "land belonging to no one" (see AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL & NATIVE TITLE LEGISLATION - AUSTRALIA). (IP)

TESTOSTERONE: A naturally occurring androgenic hormone often referred to as the male sex hormone. Testosterone is the principal androgen in the male, approximately 95% of it is produced by the Leydig cells in the testes with the remainder coming from the adrenal glands. In a normal adult male, the endocrine effects of testosterone are felt in virtually every tissue but in terms of its effect on fertility, the primary role of testosterone is in its regulation of spermatogenesis. Testosterone is also produced in the ovaries but in lower concentration. In the female androgens (testosterone and androstenedione) is likewise essential for fertility (oocyte maturation) and sexual behavior. (IP)

THALES: (c. 585 BC) Is thought of as the first Greek philosopher. His doctrine that "everything is made of water" is important as a forerunner of many monistic doctrines, throughout the history of science, which have sought to explain everything in terms of a single, unitary explanation of the form: "Everything is X". Examples are: "Everything is physics", "Everything is chemistry", and of course: "Everything is genetics". We are gradually waking up to the fact that simplistic explanations are inadequate and that the causes of phenomena are too complex for unitary explanations. Thales also said that everything is full of gods, pointing to the spiritual side of scientific explanation. (FL)

THAUMATIN: Is a sweetening ingredient found in the fruits of the plant Thaumatococcus danielli. A pertinacious substance with a very high sweetening capacity then sugar (3000 times). The gene to produce Thaumatin has been genetically engineering into E. coli and other microorganisms so that it can be produced on a larger scale. (JA)

THC: The most important active constituent of hemp plants, THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is the drug component of Cannabis which creates the euphoric high sought by users of marijuana. Synthetic THC (dronabinol; trade names Deltanyne and Marinol) has been approved for use as an analgesic in patients suffering chronic pain such as that experienced in cancer or AIDS. However, since tetrahydrocannabinol is widely recognized as a drug of addiction and the private cultivation of the plant is usually prohibited, therapeutic use of self-grown preparations is a contentious socio-legal issue. (See MARIJUANA). (IP)

THE SPECIAL SENSES: See SENSES.

THERAPEUTIC: Adj., having curative properties/value. (JA)

THERAPEUTIC ABORTION: See ABORTION.

THERAPEUTIC CLONING: Medical and scientific applications of cloning technology, which do not result in the production of genetically identical fetuses or babies. (JA)

THERAPEUTIC PROTEINS: Proteins with curing property, pharmaceutically useful proteins, to cure deficiency/defect. E.g. Insulin to cure diabetics. These are pharmaceutical proteins developed directly from DNA sequences for medical applications in human beings. ( See PROTEINS, AAT, VACCINES). (JA)

THERAPEUTIC RESEARCH: Research that is intended to benefit the subject on whom it is performed. (DM)

THERAPY: The provision of remedies in the treatment of disorders or illnesses. (DM)

THERMODYNAMICS: The branch of physics dealing with heat energy. A wide interpretation identifies four laws of thermodynamics: zero - no exchange of heat in contact is thermal equilibrium; first law - energy can change form but is conserved; second law - entropy always increases in a closed system; third law - absolute zero Kelvin is the minimum possible temperature. (See ENERGY, TEMPERATURE) (MP) 

THEOCENTRIC: A concept of believing God created all creatures, considers human beings in God's image, attributes stewardship of human beings to biosphere resources/maintenance. God as the object of worship, control of one's action in day to day life. For example some views include: Christian - biosphere and all organisms a creation of God, including human beings in God_s image, detailed in Genesis account of creation. Have "dominion" Genesis Chapter 1:28 may mean either "rule over" (stewardship) or "taken over", indicates the idea of relatedness of all life forms and to do good to them all. A purpose oriented created. Jains - A view of creation similar to the account given in Bible. Hindu - Vedic period concept holds nature is divine, worshipped, reverenced, Rivers and mountains named as gods and goddesses, regarded plants as divine, provided animals as vehicles to male gods. (JA)

THERMOLUMINESCENCE DATING: relies on quartz timing which depends on the counting of electrons trapped by naturally-occurring mechanical forces in the mineral of interest. These electrons are trapped at a regular rate and are released by the sunlight’s energy (zero time) b proportional to the tee OPTICAL DATING and RADIOCARBON DATING). (IP)

THIRD PARTY: An independent observer or mediator outside of the immediate conflict or decision. Third parties should remain balanced, independent, facilitative and engage in analytical rather than bargaining dialogue. (See MEDIATION, FACILITATION, NEGOTIATION) (MP)

THIRD PARTY CONSENT: Informed consent given by someone other than the patient or research subject. (DM)

THIRD WORLD: A term used in international political economics to refer to parts of Africa, South America, Asia and the Pacific characterized by low levels of wealth, literacy, health, military stability, productivity, food security, welfare and wellbeing. ‘ Tiers-Monde ’ was popularized by Georges Balandier and Alfred Sauvy (1950s) as a politically-oriented terminology, differentiating also the democratic capitalism of the First World from the command economies of the Second World. The descriptive system has endured despite criticism and great diminution of the ‘Second World’ after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Other descriptive terms include ‘South’, ‘Less Developed Country’ and ‘Developing Country’. The forgiveness t progress issues protection of tropical rainforests, sustainable development, capacity building and peace building. (See DEVELOPING NATIONS, FIRST WORLD, SECOND WORLD, FOURTH WORLD) (MP)

THIRD WORLD NATIONS: Countries who belong to the THIRD WORLD.

THOMAS AQUINAS: see AQUINAS, THOMAS.

THREATENED SPECIES: A species which is in danger of becoming extinct. Threatened species include members of any of the following three categories: Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered. (See ENDANGERED SPECIES) (MP)

THREE MILE ISLAND: Pennsylvania site of a nuclear energy reactor accident in March 1979, in which partial meltdown of the core caused radioactive leakage and came close to a ‘China syndrome’ on the scale of Chernobyl if it had not been cooled in time. (See CHERNOBYL, CHINA SYNDROME) (MP)

THRESHOLD: An edge, entrance or starting point; the point at which some process begins, comes true or ceases; the minimum strength at which a stimulus is perceived. (See THRESHOLD MANAGEMENT) (MP)

THRESHOLD MANAGEMENT: A concept with applications to biodiversity conservation, pollution chemistry, environmental management and economic analysis, in which the approach of indicators towards certain thresholds is monitored to regulate the impacts of a management policy which can be adapted accordingly. Using an example from fisheries management, commercial fishing would continue until stocks reach an ecologically-determined "sustainable" population threshold at which point harvesting would cease. The "acceptable biological catch" is always above the threshold within which species can regenerate their populations, and "overfishing" refers to harvesting beyond this threshold. (See SUSTAINABLE FISHING, SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT) (MP)

Ti PLASMID: Tumor inducing plasmid found in the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens - Ti plasmid can be transferred to a plant cell so as to induce a tumor - a bacterial gall, which is a hard globular outgrowths on the leaf. (JA)

TIBETAN BOOK OF THE DEAD: See BOOK OF THE DEAD.

TIDAL ENERGY: The generation of renewable power by using the movement of the tides to drive an electricity generator. Such power stations require a large tidal range and should maintain respect for intertidal ecologies. (See OCEAN POWER, WAVE POWER, RENEWABLE ENERGY) (MP)

TIME: See CHANGE, SPACE, RELATIVITY.

TIME HORIZON: The distance looked into the future when a person, government or management authority makes decisions. The impacts of decisions and policy often affect society or the environment well beyond the time horizon. (See INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT, STOPGAP MEASURES) (MP)

TIME LAG: A period of time after causal agents have been active but before which repercussive effects have begun to have noticeable impact. Examples include biological or chemical effects on the body, or the impacts of pollution or climate change on aspects of the environment. The time lag may induce a false sense of security, increasing the likelihood of the passage of critical thresholds. (See TIME-SERIES DATA, THRESHOLD) (MP)

TIME SERIES DATA: Information gathered over an extended time period such that natural processes of change and temporal fluctuations in parameters may be monitored. The Environmental Impact Assessment process has been criticized on the grounds that it only provides a snapshot in time rather than the time-series data essential for integrated and adaptive long-term management. (See ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, BEFORE/AFTER CONTROL/IMPACT METHODS, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT) (MP)

TIPITAKA: Scriptures of Theravada Buddhism, also known as the "Pali Canon", containing the philosophy of Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE). Verbal Canon completed by 252 BCE, but not fixed in writing until perhaps the 1st Century BCE. (MP)

TISSUE BANK: See BIOLOGICAL TISSUES BANKS.

TISSUE CULTURE: The propagation of tissue removed from organisms in a laboratory environment that has strict sterility, temperature, and nutrient requirements.

TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR (tPA): A genetically engineered protein drug that helps to dissolve blood clots in patients who have suffered heart attacks. (DM)

TNT: The yellow solid TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) is a conventional high explosive used in warfare, mining and movies. The explosive yield of a bomb is measured in terms of equivalent TNT. (See EXPLOSIVE YIELD) (MP)

TOBACCO: Plant of the genus Nicotiana in family Solanaceae from which smoking and chewing tobacco, cigarettes, cigars and snuff are manufactured. There are over 50 varieties of the plant but only a few are used for smoking purposes. N. babacum and N. rustica are the most important commercially. N. rustica was cultivated by the ancient Mexicans and by the North American First Nation peoples. (See NICOTINE, SMOKING, ADDICTION). (IP)

TOCOPHEROL: See VITAMIN E.

TOLERANCE: the disposition to be fair towards those whose opinions or practices differ from one’s own - freedom from bigotry. (IP)

TORAH: (from the Hebrew root y.r.y., meaning "to guide, to teach"). The primary meaning of this word is "teaching", and so one finds in the Hebrew of the Old Testament expressions such as "this is the torah (teaching) as regards the burnt offering", "this is the torah regarding one who is afflicted with tzara'at (a skin condition)". The most common derived meaning from this is the teachings contained in the first five books of the Old Testament (Genesis through Deuteronomy). These five books are known together as Torah (with a capital T). According to Jewish tradition, the Torah in this second meaning, was received from God at Mount Sinai by Moses in its entirety. For this reason, the Torah is the most sacred of Jewish books, and the study of Torah is central to Jewish tradition. In a more general meaning than this, the word Torah has also been applied to the Oral Tradition of the rabbis, and so, there is reference made to Oral Torah (i.e. teaching of the rabbis) and Written Torah (i.e. the five books received by Moses). Because of this more general meaning, the word Torah is sometimes used to mean "Jewish teachings" in general. In the Quran and other Muslim sources, the word "Tawrat" (the Arabic equivalent of "Torah") is used to refer to the entirety of the Old Testament, rather than exclusively refering to the five books of Moses. (AG)

TORTS: In law, private or civil wrongs, other than breach of contract, for which the courts will provide a remedy in the form of an action for damages. A private or civil wrong resulting from a breach of a legal duty that exists by virtue of society's legal expectations regarding interpersonal conduct, rather than by virtue of a contractual agreement. (DM)

TOTAL ALLOWABLE CATCH (TAC): The overall allowable fishing catch in accordance with a sustainable fishery management plan. Fishing may be regulated by closing the fishery when TAC is reached, or by the allocation of portions of TAC as fishing quotas. (See SUSTAINABLE FISHING, THRESHOLD MANAGEMENT, FISHING QUOTA) (MP)

TOTAL CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT (TCM): TCM is an environmental management policy which emphasizes the centrality of water and that water catchments are a useful bioregion for implementing management. Integrated natural resource management should be based upon fundamental processes and boundaries such as the water cycle, drainage system, river catchments, and ecological and human water requirements. TCM also has social components, sometimes requiring inter-governmental/multidisciplinary collaboration, often in committees including scientific, government, developer, landholder, local and indigenous representatives. Issues include fairness in water utilization/regulation/ownership, downstream water quality/pollution, sustainability issues, and adequacy of water for freshwater/riparian/floodplain ecologies. (See INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT) (MP)

TOTEM: see TOTEMISM.

TOTEMISM: 1. a view that an object or emblem, especially sacred animal or religious image, stands in a special relationship to a specific person, familial group or clan, and which galvanizes rituals intended to unite (see Animism) 2. For the Australian Aboriginal, totems create the spiritual link between humans and all the things in Nature and the Dreaming; for example, if a person has a special spiritual link with an emu the emu becomes that person’s totem which provides the connection to the sign as to which Dreaming their child will nt, insect will not die out (it is forbidden to eat ones totem), totemism becomes a potent conservation strategy enforcing responsible stewardship of species. (IP)

TOTIPOTENCY: This represents the capacity (potential) of a cell or a cluster of cells to produce the whole (total) embryo and fetus with all its extraembryonic membranes and tissues. Pluripotency or multipotency is similar but is restricted to represent the capacity to produce a variety of parts and tissues but not the whole embryo and fetus. (DM)

TOTIPOTENT: (Latin: totus 'whole, entire' + potens 'powerful') A single cell has full genetic potential to become a complete organism during any stage in life process, cells capable of reproducing themselves continually. A term proposed by the German botanist Gottleib Heberlant in 1902. (JA)

TOUCH: (French toucher 'to touch'). The tactile sense or the ability to feel objects and to distinguish their various characteristics. A lack of tactile stimulation, especially in early infancy, may lead to serious developmental and emotional disturbances. For example, massaged babies gain weight as much as 50% faster than unmassaged babies and are more active, alert, aware of and responsive to the environment, are able to tolerate noise and orient themselves faster as they are emotionally more in control. (See SENSES) (IP)

TOURISM: See SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, LEISURE.

TOWER OF SILENCE: The place to which the dead bodies of humans are brought according to Zoroastrian tradition. In such towers, the body is neither buried nor cremated, because both earth and fire have special sanctity in Zoroastrian tradition. So, in order not to pollute either of these, the body is placed in a tower which is open at the top. Then, through a combination of the process of decomposition and scavenging birds, eventually only the bones remain. (AG)

TOXIC: A chemical or physical agent that produces an adverse effect on an organism/a biological system, a poison (JA+SG2)

TOXIC CHEMICALS: A substance or a chemical product which can cause a harmful effect in humans and in other organisms. It could be a substance that cause a concern for humans due to its possible developmental effect or due to its nature to impair human fertility or both.  (See TOXIN) (JA)

TOXICITY TESTING: The use of experimental procedures to determine the levels at which exposure to a material leads to adverse effects in test subjects, the characterization of such induced effects and the elucidation of mechanisms of action by which effects were induced. (DM)

TOXICOLOGY: The study of the adverse effects of chemical and physical agents on living organisms.  Examples of toxicology are the study of effect of lead on the developing nervous system, the environmental effects of mercury, loud noise on hearing, or the effects of radiation. (JA+SG2)

TOXICOLOGIST: A scientist that studies the adverse effects of agents on biological systems. (SG2)

TOXICANT (POISON): An agent cable of causing toxicity or adverse effects on an organism. (SG2)  

TOXIN: Most often, a toxic peptide or protein capable of eliciting antibody production. A natural biological agent (from plants, animals, bacteria or fungus) that causes toxicity. A toxicant is a substance that has been shown to present some significant degree of possible risk when consumed above safe limits by animals. See endotoxin and exotoxin . A harmful substance - poisonous substance Algal - bioactive compounds produced by algae with toxic effect, e.g. Red tide - diatom algae Trichodesmium produces paralytic and diarrhoetic shellfish poisons. For example, domoic acid found in shellfish, nicotine in tobacco leafs, caffeine in cola nuts or snake venom.  (DM, JA)

TRACY: A GMO (LMO) sheep, product of Roslin Institute, PPL-Therapeutics produced her progeny, has human gene coding AAT protein to produce in her mammary gland. (See also DOLLY and POLLY) (JA)

TRADE EFFLUENTS: Any liquid, gaseous or solid substance which is discharged from any premises used for carrying on any industrial operations or process or treatment and disposal system other than domestic sewage. (JA)

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS: The Tragedy of the Commons is a famous essay authored by Garrett Hardin. It is an argument for private ownership as a means of conserving resources. Hardin envisages an area of common land on which animals are kept for grazing by a number of herders. It is to the advantage ( sensu self interest) of any one herder to increase the number of animals he keeps on the commons. So all do. But this leads to overgrazing and irreversible damage to the commons. The tragedy of the commons has been repeated a thousand times. We overfish, we cut down too many trees, we extract too much freshwater from aquifers and so, through human selfishness, we ruin much of what is held in common ownership. (MR)

TRAIT: Phenotypical and genotypical characters in plants and animals, vary in degree they are expressed. Exhibited desired traits selected empirically for improvement. E.g. Shape and size of cultivated plants, domestic ornamental plants and animals with disease resistance. (JA)

TRANQUILITY: A peaceful, serene setting, often natural sounds and surrounds which soothe the mood and calm mind and body. (See PEACE, SHANTI) (MP)

TRANS-: Combining prefix from Latin, trans means ‘across’, ‘beyond’. (See META-, MULTI-, INTER-, MEGA-) (MP)

TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION: See MEDITATION.

TRANSCRIPTION: The synthesis of mRNA from a sequence of DNA (a gene); the first step in gene expression. Compare translation. (DM)

TRANSDISCIPLINARY: (Trans- 'beyond') An approach in which the problem-solving process is the primary consideration, and information from any relevant profession or discipline may be incorporated into the solution process. This is distinct from inter- or multidisciplinary approaches which originate among disciplines. (See MULTIDISCIPLINARY, INTERDISCIPLINARY, ENLIGHTENMENT THINKING) (MP)

TRANSDUCTION: The transfer of genetic material from one cell to another by means of a virus or bacteriophage. (DM)

TRANSFER RNA, tRNA: A class of RNA having structures with triplet nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the triplet nucleotide coding sequences of mRNA. The role of tRNAs in protein synthesis is to bond with amino acids and transfer them to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized according to the instructions carried by mRNA. Chemical (transfer ribonucleic acid) responsible for carrying individual AMINO ACIDS (q.v.) within a cell so that PROTEINS (q.v.) of the appropriate type can be assembled from instructions provided by GENES (q.v.). (DM+MR+GK)

TRANSFORMATION: Introduction and assimilation of DNA from one organism into another via uptake of naked DNA. (DM)

TRANSGENIC: An organism (can be plant or animal) in which a foreign gene (a transgene) or DNA sequence, is incorporated into its genome early in development. The transgene is present in both somatic and germ cells, is expressed in one or more tissues, and is inherited by the offspring. A variety containing a foreign gene with the process of genetic engineering - from one species to another. Commonly refers to movement of genes between unrelated species, plants, animals, bacteria, humans, unknown in nature, mediated by humans through genetic manipulation. (DM, JA)

TRANSGENIC ANIMALS: Animals whose hereditary DNA has been augmented by the addition of DNA from a source other than parental germplasm usually from another animal or a human, in a laboratory, using recombinant DNA techniques. Research in this field is done many species. (DM)

TRANSHUMAN CONDITION: See FUTUROLOGY, HUMAN EXTINCTION.

TRANSLATION SOFTWARE: Computer programming which allows instantaneous machine translation between human languages, including several automated online systems. Research since the 1950s has led to the current point of conjunction between speech recognition, machine translation and the internet. Examples of technology include interactive online Systran translation, real-time Japanese/English cellphone translation, and wearable translation computers for army personnel. The Universal Translator will revolutionize accessibility to information and cultural exchange. English will no longer be the default language, creating a truly global business and communications infosphere. (See VOICE RECOGNITION, VIDEO CONFERENCING, INFOSPHERE) (MP)

TRANSNATIONAL MOVEMENT OF POLLUTANTS:  Trans-boundary movement of a Hazardous waste substance from a jurisdiction of one nation to another or to or through an area not under the national jurisdiction of any country- at least two countries are involved in the movement, e.g. Chernobyl nuclear fall out. (JA)

TRANSLATION: The process in which the genetic code carried by mRNA directs the synthesis of proteins from amino acids. Compare TRANSCRIPTION. (DM)

TRANSLOCATION: The transfer of genetic material from one chromosome to another. An exchange of material between two chromosomes is referred to as a 'reciprocal translocation'. (DM)

TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATION: A corporation across more than one country. (See MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION) (DM)

TRANSPLANTATION: involves the removal of an organ/s, tissue/s or cell/s from one donor organism and transplanted to another. (JA)

TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENT: A class of DNA sequences capable of insertion into a genome at numerous positions, and of moving from one area of a genome to another area or another genome. (DM)

TRANSSEXUALISM: A condition in which a person's gender identity is opposite to the biological sex. Transsexuals are convinced, even though the body chromosomes, internal and external reproductive organs and fertility may be normal, that they actually belong to the opposite sex. Many transsexuals choose to undergo gender reassignment operations to alter their external sexual characteristics. Transsexualism should not be confused with homosexuality or transvestism. (See TRANSVESTISM, HOMOSEXUALITY) (IP)

TRANSPOSON: A type of transposable element incapable of autonomous existence, often shuttling genetic material back and forth between cell chromosomes, between smaller replicons, and between chromosomes and replicons. (DM)

TRANSSEXUAL: See TRANSSEXUALISM.

TRANSVESTISM: The tendency of dressing in clothes of the opposite sex in order to attain psychic and erotic relief/pleasure. (See TRANSSEXUALISM, HOMOSEXUALITY) (IP)

TRANSVESTITE: See TRANSVESTISM.

TREATMENT GROUP: See EXPERIMENTAL GROUP.

TREATMENT OUTCOME: The results of clinical interventions in terms of patient health or quality of life. (DM)

TREATMENT REFUSAL: Refusal of treatment by an individual or by a third party authorized to make decisions on behalf of a legally incompetent person. (DM)

TREE PLANTING: The planting of trees has numerous environmental and human benefits other than the provision of timber. These include restoration of habitat and ecology, increased biodiversity, provision of wildlife corridors, stabilisation of soil erosion, reduced soil salinity, greater land fertility, sun shelter, wind-breaks, a carbon sink and source of fresh oxygen, and increased ecological and economic worth. This is in addition to the intrinsic, aesthetic and spiritual values of trees. Tree planting programs should aim for a diversity of local native species rather than stands of a single introduced species such as timber pines, and involve research, seeding, nursery, planting, watering, ecological surveying, monitoring and maintenance. (See AGROFORESTRY, BIOREMEDIATION, ENVIRONMENTAL COMPENSATION, PERMACULTURE, RESTORATION ECOLOGY) (MP)

TREPHINATION: (Trepanation)- A surgical practice which became highly developed in South America in ancient times, between 500 bce and 500 ce. This practice involved the removal of parts of the skull without damage to the brain tissue beneath it. Trephination was employed in order to relieve certain medical conditions or to alleviate symptoms thought to be caused by malignant spirits. (AG)

TRIBE: A group of aboriginal living in close community. As this term has sometimes been used in a scornful way referring to these people and their culture, it is presently been replaced by ethnic group. (GK)

TRIBALISM, ENLIGHTENED: Tribalism is loyalty to one's own local extended family, community and culture. Unenlightened tribalism is xenophobic, and resists any understanding, love or moral responsibility towards the rest of the world. Universalism emphasises the global culture, internationally shared values and solidarity of all humans. But universalism ignores the unique contributions to spirituality, culture and bioethics of local and tribal cultures. Enlightened Tribalism strives to combine the best of Tribalism and Universalism, developing relationships among family and neighbours, developing local spirituality, while recognising our moral duties towards, and solidarity with the rest of the world, and while being open to learning from other cultures.(FL)

TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANTS: See SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS.

TRIDOSA: (Three dosas) These are the three "humors" of the Ayurvedic system of medicine (see Ayurveda, Humor). Each one represents a different mixture of elements, and therefore a different physical disposition, and personality. These three dosas are known as vata, pitta, and kapha, representing air, fire and water-earth respectively. The treatment of different conditions in Ayurveda is based on maintaining balance of the three dosas, and imbalances in the dosas are said to be the origin of diseases. This also results in different diets recommended for people of different dosa orientation. (AG)

TRIPLE BOTTOM LINE: The performance of a company is usually measured by the bottom line (profits), however the trend towards more integrated accounting for sustainable development has created the concept of the triple bottom line. This refers to the more rounded, reasonable inclusion into any assessment of an organization’s accomplishments, of 1) the environmental impacts and 2) the social outcomes, along with 3) the economic dimension. (See SUSTAINABLE CORPORATION, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

TRIPLOIDY: Three complete sets of chromosomes per cell. Ten percent of spontaneous abortions show this type of chromosomal aberrations, which are not viable. (See ABORTION) (GK)

TRIPS AGREEMENT: Agreement on Trade related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. The agreement provides a mandatory standards as to which subject matter is eligible for patent protection, as well as in respect of the contents, limits and the term of protection, However, it does not refer to genes. The TRIPS agreement is applicable to all the 144 WTO member states.  (JA)

TRISOMY: (Tri "three" + soma "body") presence of an extra chromosome, making a total of three of one kind eg. Trisomy 21 aneuploidy in humans with Down syndrome. One chromosome is found in three copies. Trisomies can be due to non-disjunction of a pair of chromosomes during meiosis, or to translocations. In both cases, one gamete contributes an extra copy of that chromosomes. Unlike monosomies, many trisomies are viable, the most frequent being the 21 trisomy (Down syndrome, 0.13% in newborns) and the sex chromosome trisomies (Klinefelter XXY, 0.09%; XXX, 0,1%). (JA+GK)

TRITICALE: A wheat/rye hybrid which combines the hardiness of rye with the quality characteristics of wheat. This new crop species is now well developed and replaces wheat in poor quality, marginal lands throughout the world. (JA)

tRNA: See TRANSFER RNA.

TROPICAL RAINFOREST: Tropical closed moist forests dominated by broad-leaved evergreen trees. The most diverse biome on Earth, tropical rainforests cover only 6% of the surface of the Earth but are thought to contain more than half of all species. The treetops are layered into several canopies which form a dense habitat and prevent 90% of the sunlight from reaching the ground. Tropical rainforests typically receive some 200 centimeters of annual rainfall without distinct changes in climate between seasons. Rainforest biodiversity is based on a very tight recycling of mineral nutrients, most of which are tied up in the vegetation and recycled by means of symbiotic relationships between microorganisms and host plants. Because of natural cycling and reuse of nutrients, luxuriant rainforests can grow on soils that an agriculturist would regard as infertile unless supplied with large amounts of fertilizers. (See BIODIVERSITY, CANOPY, RAINFOREST DESTRUCTION, SYMBIOSIS, TEMPERATE RAINFOREST) (MP & IP)

TROPOSPHERE: The region of the atmosphere between the Earth surface and the stratosphere, which begins at approximately 17 km altitude in the tropics and subtropics but only at about 10 km altitude at higher latitudes. The troposphere is characterized by dropping temperature with increasing altitude and is the zone in which virtually all the water vapor in the atmosphere is located. (See OZONE; OZONE HOLE; STRATOSPHERE) (RW+IP)

TRUTH DISCLOSURE: Truthful revelation to a patient or the patient's family of the patient's diagnosis or prognosis, errors in treatment, or other "bad news'' (differentiate from DISCLOSURE, which is used in the context of communicating to patients or research subjects information about risks and benefits or alternative approaches to treatment or experimentation). (DM)

TRUTH SERUM: A drug used for the purpose of eliciting information. Chemical interrogation is sometimes attempted during wartime or for national security purposes, and often military or terrorist prisoners have been trained in interrogation-resistance. The ethical and legal status of the use of such drugs is debatable - they are probably used more for criminal purposes than for criminal prosecution. An example is sodium pentothal, with which greater truthfulness is induced by decreasing inhibition to the vocalization of thoughts. (MP)

TUBE FEEDING: See ARTIFICIAL FEEDING.

TUE TINH: (1255-1399) Vietnamese Buddhist priest and physician. Considered the "heavenly authority on Southern medicine" (Thanh thuoc nam). Vietnamese medical tradition distinguishes "Northern" medicine (Chinese) and "Southern" medicine (native Vietnamese medical tradition. Tue Tinh's approach was to respect the Northern medical knowledge but to place the emphasis on Southern medical tradition. His two major works are "Nam duoc than hieu" (Miraculous effects of Southern Medicine) and "Thap tham phuong gia giam" (13 Medical Remedies and their variations). (AG)

TULAREMIA: A virulent bacterial disease caused by Franciella tularensis, infectious of rodents, transmitted by handling and eating of infected animals with irregular fever, aching and inflammations of lymph glands. (JA)

TUNDRA: Northern hemisphere circumpolar environment (very cold, low rainfall) and its ecological communities (mosses, sedges, insects, owl, caribou, polar/grizzly bears etc.) (See TAIGA) (MP)

TURBIDITY: An indicator of the cloudiness or suspended solid particulate matter in smog or muddy water; a commonly measured component of water quality. (See WATER POLLUTION) (MP)

TURING TEST: The ‘Turing Test’, looks forperator in something like holding a written conversation. It was Alan Turing who also founded modern computing in 1936 with his ‘Turing machine’. (See ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)

TV: See TELEVISION.

TWINS/TWINNING: Early embryo stem cells (blastomeres) are totipotent; that is, an isolated blastomere can give rise to an entire embryo, a property that is lost as differentiation proceeds. Human twins are classified into two major groups: fraternal or dizygotic, also called biovular, and identical or monozygotic, also called uniovular. Fraternal twins are the result of two separate fertilizations when two oocytes are shed in a single ovulation; identical twins are formed from a common embryo whose cells dissociated from one another. Identical twins (roughly 0.25% of human births) are produced by the separation of early blastomeres or by the separation of the inner cell mass into two regions within the same embryo. About 33% of identical twins have complete and separate placentae, indicating that separation occurred early in embryonic development. The remaining identical twins share a common placenta, suggesting that the split occurred later in the development of the embryo. If the split is incomplete the outcome is conjoined twins. (See CONJOINT TWINS). (IP)

TYPE I ERROR: In statistical method and scientific falsification, Type I Error (type-one error) is incorrectly rejecting a true null-hypothesis. For example, at significance level P=0.05 there is a five percent chance of Type I Error. (See TYPE II ERROR, STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE) (MP)
 
TYPE II ERROR: In statistical method and scientific falsification, Type II Error (type-two error) is failing to reject a false null-hypothesis. Statistical power is the probability of Type II Error not occurring. (See TYPE I ERROR, STATISTICAL POWER, ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE) (MP)  

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