UNESCO/IUBS/EUBIOS BIOETHICS DICTIONARY - "U"s

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UAV: Unmanned Aerial Vehicle.

UFO: Unidentified Flying Object.

ULTRASOUND: The use of high-frequency sound waves focused on the body to obtain a video image of internal tissues, organs and structures. Ultrasound is particularly useful for in utero examinations of a developing fetus, for evaluation of the development of ovarian follicles, and for the guided retrieval of oocytes for IVF and GIFT. (IP)

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION: Light in the wavelength range roughly from 100 to 400 nm, which is invisible to the human eye. Ultraviolet radiation (UV) has higher energy than visible light and is strongly absorbed by DNA, which is damaged by exposure. In recent decades, UV irradiance has been increasing as chlorofluorocarbons released by industrial activities have depleted the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer, which acts as a UV shield. Detailed information and data can be obtained from the World Ozone and Ultraviolet Radiation Data Centre (http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/woudc/), which is part of the World Meteorological Organization's Global Atmosphere Watch program. (RW)

UN: See UNITED NATIONS.

UNANI: (meaning "Greek" in Arabic) A Greco-Arabic system of medicine. This system is based upon classical Greek medicine and elaborated by Islamic scholars. Ibn Sinna's "Canon of Medicine" is a central work of Unani medicine. This system of medicine is practiced especially in India, Pakistan and Nepal. (AG)

UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.

UNCERTAINTY: The condition in which validated scientific knowledge regarding risks, benefits, diagnosis, or prognosis is unavailable. Uncertainty is a constant and inherent feature of science, medicine, sociology, ecology, development and management. Uncertainty is the backdrop from which we unravel the information we place enough faith in to call knowledge. Uncertainties, limitations and negative results should be revealed rather than repressed in scientific journals and Environmental Impact Assessment. There have been many responses to dealing with uncertainty, for example in business (cost/benefit analysis), environmental management (precautionary principle, hazard prediction), social management (safety regulations, risk analysis) and international relations (military/economic strategy). Risk is where the system is reasonably well understood and quantification may be attempted on the probability of a future occurrence. Uncertainty is where the elements of the system are known but the probabilities of a chance occurrence are unknown. Indeterminacy is where the scientific or social context is not sufficiently understood to allow a problem to be determined - knowledge may be conditional on the validity of certain assumptions. Ignorance implies a lack of understanding of the system itself - we can"t understand what we don"t know. Methodological uncertainty is where the professional judgment may be uncertain because of inherent complexity, subjectivity, measurement inaccuracy, inappropriate scientific methods or assumptions. Statistical uncertainty exists because statistics are inferential and probabilistic. Epistemological uncertainty concerns understanding of the problem and appropriateness of the knowledge framework. (See IGNORANCE, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE, RISK ANALYSIS, UNKNOWABLE) (MP)

UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE: See HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE.

UNCONDITONAL LOVE: Love freely given and not restrained by conditions; especially important during childhood development in order to stabilize physical and spiritual wellbeing, and to promote the cycle of nurture and love through the generations. (See LOVE OF LIFE). (IP & MP)

UNCONSTITUTIONAL: Conflicting with the provisions of a constitution, usually the U.S. Constitution. Statutory provisions or particular applications of a statutory provision found unconstitutional are thereby rendered void.

UNCSD: United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.

UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

UNDCP: United Nations Drug Control Programme.

UNDP: United Nations Development Programme.

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Founded in 1945, one month after the founding of the United Nations itself. The UNESCO headquarters is in Paris and there are 73 field offices and units spread over the world. Mission: "The main objective of UNESCO is to contribute to peace and security in the world by promoting collaboration among nations through education, science, culture and communication in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations." http://www.unesco.org/ (RW)

UNEP: United Nations Environment Program. Founded in 1972 to protect the environment and facilitate sustainable development. Mission statement: "To provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of the future generations." http://www.unep.org/ (RW)

UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund.

UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

UNICEF: United Nations Children’s Fund (formerly United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund).

UNIDIR: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research.

UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION: a mood disorder where the sufferers are never manic, though they may be what’s called in common parlance a bit "hyper"; they"re usually in varying degrees either even-tempered or depressed. The etiology can either be primary or secondary, where a primary depression is one where the particular mood disorder is the dominant problem. In a secondary depression a number of psychological and/or social variables, or dysfunction, for example, schizophrenia, drug abuse (alcoholism, marijuana, amphetamines, cocaine), extreme nutritional deficiencies and physical illness, may produces the symptoms identified as depression. Low serotonin transmission is associated with unipolar depression; however it’s not clear to what extent biological (genetic) processes are involved since the illness represents a spectrum of diversity as well as severity (see DEPRESSION; BIPOLAR DEPRESSION; BRAIN NEUROTRANSMITTERS; SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS) (IP)

UNITED: (Latin: unus "one") Having joined or combined together; in agreement or alliance; a unified and integrated whole; acting as one in purpose, action or belief. (See SOLIDARITY, UNITY) (MP)

UNITED NATIONS: Founded by 51 countries in October 1945 to promote peace and cooperation internationally; presently 189 member countries. The General Assembly is the main governing body; each member country has one vote. General assembly decisions are by simple or 2/3 majority for regular or 'important' matters. The 15-member Security Council has responsibility for matters related to peace and security. China, France, the Russian Federation, the United States, and the United Kingdom are permanent Security Council members; the other 10 members are elected by the General Assembly for 2-year terms. http://www.un.org/english/ (RW)

UNITY: (Latin: unus "one") The condition of being one unified whole composed of many different parts or peoples, associated by a common bond such as that of humanity, and connected in mutual agreement, tolerance and harmony. (See SOLIDARITY, TOLERANCE, UNITED) (MP)

UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS: Global constitutional document outlining human rights for the whole of humanity, adopting and preserving a "common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations". Prepared by the Commission on Human Rights, set up by the United Nations Economic and Social Council chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, it was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in December 1948, with 48 member states voting in favor and 8 against, and has been adopted by many more countries since. The thirty articles of the declaration cover areas summarized as follows: Article 1. All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights, 2. entitlement to rights without distinctions of race, color, sex, language, religion, politics, nationality, property, birth or other status, 3. right to life, liberty and security of person, 4. prohibition of slavery and servitude, 5. prohibition of torture and inhuman treatment, 6. right of recognition before the law, 7. equality before the law, 8. right to an effective legal remedy, 9. prohibition of arbitrary arrest, detention or exile, 10. right to an impartial tribunal hearing, 11. presumed innocent until proven guilty, 12. protection against arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, correspondence, honor or reputation, 13. freedom of national and international movement, 14. right to foreign asylum from political persecution, 15. right to a nationality, 16. right to consenting marriage and protection of the family unit, 17. right to own property, 18. right to freedom of thought and conscience, choice of religion and freedom to teach, practice and worship, 19. right to freedom of opinion and expression and right to seek, receive and impart information through any media, 20. right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association, 21. access to government, public service and genuine elections expressing the will of the people, 22. right to social security, 23. right to work, free choice of employment, equal pay for equal work and trade union membership, 24. right to rest and leisure, 25. standards of living adequate for health, wellbeing, security and child protection, 26. free elementary education and access to higher education on the basis of merit, 27. right to participate in the arts, science and cultural life, with protection of author interests, 28. right to an international social order able to realize these rights and freedoms, 29. everyone has duties to their community and is subject to laws which respect general welfare and the rights and freedoms of others, and 30. discouraging any act aimed at the destruction of these rights and freedoms. (See HUMAN RIGHTS) (MP)

UNKNOWABLE: Scientific knowledge is gained through testability and falsification using experiments and statistics. The limitations of science become apparent when dealing with subjects outside of the applicability of scientific method. These subjects of philosophical abstraction, great complexity and metaphysical belief are really unknowable unless they can be sufficiently justified or validated. There are operational barriers to the process of ultimate proof. Awareness of this leads to the philosophical response of the agnostic: “I don’t know.” (See KNOWLEDGE, PROOF, UNCERTAINTY, IMPOSSIBILITY, IGNORANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, FALSIFICATION, INDUCTION, BEST AVAILABLE INFORMATION, AGNOSTIC) (MP)

UNSUSTAINABILITY: Unfortunately, perhaps the majority of current human activities are non-sustainable, so it may be easier or more appropriate to measure ‘unsustainability’. Approaching thistics and impackew towards unsuY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT) (MP)

UNU: United Nations University.

UNV: United Nations Volunteers.

UPANISHADS: (Sanskrit: ‘sitting beneath’) Sacred literature of Hinduism comprising many disparate writings, often referred to as the ‘Vedanta’ (or ‘End of the Vedas’), composed in She Brahman and A tman. (See Vedas) (MP)

URANIUM: Chemical element with atomic number 92, existing in two isotopes ²³⁵U (0.7%) and ²³⁸U (99.3%). Uranium is radioactive, for example ²³⁸ U emits alpha and gamma radiation and has a half-life of 4.5x10⁹ years. (See YELLOWCAKE, RADIOACTIVITY) (MP)

URBAN CONSOLIDATION: The increased development of high-density housing in inner city areas. Urban consolidation is a result of the urbanization common in overpopulated, underdeveloped countries. Urban consolidation results in increased traffic congestion, pollution, noise, crowding and reduced privacy. It is however an attempt to manage other risks and processes of urbanization, such as the prevention of urban sprawl and the conservation of adjacent National Parks. Urban consolidation should develop parallel infrastructure and amenities, locate along public transport routes, and utilize cleaned-up industrial areas rather than green areas in order to retain adequate recreational sites and suburban parklands. (See URBAN SPRAWL, URBANIZATION, SLUMS, SUSTAINABLE CITIES) (MP)

URBAN RENEWAL: The process of remodeling and redevelopment of slums and shanty-towns, and the gentrification and modernization of residential areas and the central business district. (See URBANIZATION, MODERNIZATION, SLUMS) (MP)

URBAN SPRAWL: The spread of urban and suburban landscapes across a wide geographical area surrounding a city. Multiple nodes may emerge which function as secondary central business districts. Cities may obliterate coastal ecosystems by stretching along the coastline until they form a continuous suburban strip to adjacent towns. The American and Australian Dreams of the family home on a quarter-acre block have exacerbated the problem of urban sprawl. (See URBAN CONSOLIDATION, URBANIZATION, SUSTAINABLE CITIES) (MP)

URBANIZATION: The process of human movement and centralization towards and into cities and urban areas, with the associated industrialization, urban sprawl and lifestyle of urbanism. Often impoverished, landless or hopeful people may see limited rural opportunities or be driven from the land by increased mechanization of agriculture. Flight to the bright lights of the city often ends as a fringe life of shanty-towns, unemployment and crime. At the same time, cities are centers of opportunity, education and social mobility, and urban areas may undergo renewal, gentrification and modernization. (See INDUSTRIALIZATION, MODERNIZATION SLUMS, SHANTY TOWN, URBAN SPRAWL, URBAN RENEWAL) (MP)

USAID: United States Agency for International Development.

USDA - UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: Founded in 1862 by President Abraham Lincoln. Responsible for conservation on private lands, stewardship of national forests, agricultural research, food safety, etc. http:\\www.usda.gov (RW)

USE VALUE: The value of the natural environment derived from its actual utilization by humans. The useful value of a resource may motivate conservation or may promote its development and destruction. Examples of direct use values include harvesting of timber and seafood, and indirect use values, or passive values, include recreation and functions towards the human ecosystem such as carbon fixation. This illustrates the difficulties of distinction and evaluation when it comes to the complex interdependency of humans with ecosystems. Use values may also include option value and bequest value, but exclude existence value and intrinsic value. (See INTRINSIC VALUE OF NATURE, INSTRUMENTAL VALUE OF NATURE, OPTION VALUE, BEQUEST VALUE, EXISTENCE VALUE, ENVIRONMENTAL VALUATION) (MP)

USER-PAYS PRINCIPLE: See ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS.

USPTO - UNITED STATES PATENT AND TRADEMARK OFFICE: A governing body for granting Patents on novel inventions.  The patenting regime in USA, is different from the EPO. A patent can be challenged through  litigation or a request can be made for reexamination. (JA)

UTERUS: (Latin uterus 'womb'). The pear-shaped reproductive organ in which the conceptus is implanted and the fetus develops, and from which the menses flow. In women it is a single muscular organ positioned between the bladder and the rectum with its cylindrical neck, or cervix, being directed towards the vagina with which it communicates. The wider portion receives the oviducts or Fallopian tubes at its two upper angles in close proximity to the ovaries. The uterus is a common site of tumors - both benign and malignant. The commonest benign tumors are fibroids while, typically, cancer of the uterus appears at an older age with a common symptom being postmenopausal bleeding. Surgical (hysterectomy) at an early stage of the disease is usually a cure. (IP)

UTILITARIAN: The view that an action is deemed morally acceptable because it produces the greatest balance of good over evil taking into account all individuals affected. (See UTILITARIANISM). (DM)

UTILITARIANISM: 1. The belief that the value of a thing or an action is determined by its utility; ethical theory arguably proposed by Mo Tzu (China 6 ^th century BC), and in Modern Times by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and James Mill (1808-1873) that all actions should be directed toward achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people 2. political theory that aids in the decision process by endorsing the course of action that produces the greatest utility for the majority of individuals. (DM)

UTILITARIANISM, ACT AND RULE: Act Utilitarianism teaches that to be ethical is to do acts, which will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people. Good is defined as happiness, and happiness is defined as pleasure. Rule Utilitarianism teaches that to be ethical is to act according to rules, which are such that if all or most people were to adopt these rules then the greatest good would be produced for the greatest number of people. It has often been debated whether there is really any practical difference between these two versions of Utilitarianism.

Regardless of which version one adopts, the doctrine -- as was pointed out by Mahatma Gandhi -- simplistically implies that one may do bad to a minority in order to produce the happiness of the majority. Gandhi therefore rejected it in favour of the idea that we should try to do the best for everybody. Whether this is practically achievable is another question. The simplistic application of Utilitarianism seems to some people to imply that we may kill neonates with serious anomalies, and refrain from trying to help brain-injured patients recover from the Persistent Vegetative State, in order to save the cost to society of their treatment. Simplistic formulations and applications of Utilitarianism, however, may not be faithful to Mill, himself. Mill's book, Utilitarianism, was a deep work of philosophical thought, showing sensitivity to, and a willingness to face nuances and exceptions in the spirit of philosophy.

A more recent utilitarianism, the bioethicist, Peter Singer, argued that it is SPECIESISM (q.v.) to formulate utilitarianism merely for the good of the greatest number of people. All beings, which are capable of suffering, should be taken into consideration. Thus, he argued that the phrase: the greatest number of sentient beings, should be substituted for the phrase: the greatest number of people. (FL)

UTILITY: The state of being useful or producing good. (DM)

UTILITY PATENTS: Usefulness or utility is one of the criteria used to evaluate patent applications. Utility patents are patents issued to inventors of any new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition or any new and useful improvement there of. (DM)

UTOPIA: (Greek: ou ‘no’ + tópas ‘place’) An omas More’s ‘Utopia’ (1516). Utopia is often interpreted as dreams of ideal perfection, implying ‘good place’ ( eu: ‘good’) instead of the more correct ‘no-place’ ( ou: ‘no’), which created the category of dystopia ( dys: ‘bad’). So the term ‘utopia’ also includes the subset of dystopias like Huxley’s ‘Brave New World’ and Orwell’s ‘Nineteen Eighty-Four’ , as well as schemes somewhere in-between. Utopians have had to deal with fundamental problems of ethics, society and human interaction. Varying visions of ideal society have been proposed, dealing with human behavior towards one another and the elimination of desire, selfishness and wrongdoing. Utopias have been criticized on the basis of their social uniformity, and justification for unnatural proposed changes to human nature. In fact, and at the dystopian end of the spectrum, have been ideas of eugenic genocide (Hitler), selective extermination (Pol Pot), and authoritarian punishment (Lenin). Alternate proposals have included the middle way to self-enlightenment (Buddha), and in the fictional utopias altruism (Campanella), mood altering drugs (Huxley), the abolition of family (Plato) or of the legal system (Morris). Other bioethical dilemmas tackled by the utopian literature include justice, relation to nature, feminism, child-rearing, disability, abortion, euthanasia, sterilization, sexual promiscuity, and broader ethical debates such as good versus evil in human nature, reason versus passion, social welfare versus freedom, and collectivism versus individuality. Utopian visionary journeys have included those of Plato’s ‘Republic’ (c.360 bce ); Tommaso Campanella ‘City of the Sun’ (1602); Francis Bacon ‘New Atlantis’ (1627), Etienne Cabet ‘Voyage to Icaria’ (1839); William Morris ‘News from Nowhere’ (1891); H.G. Wells ‘A Modern Utopia’ and ‘Men Like Gods’ , and Aldous Huxley’s ‘Island’ (1962). Perhaps the modern utopian writers are idealistic environmentalists and futurologists of popular science such as those investigating the revolutionary potential of genetics, nanotechnology and cyberia. (See DYSTOPIA, ESCHATOLOGY, FUTUROLOGY, SCIENCE FICTION, NANOTECHNOLOGY, OMEGA POINT THEORY, PEACE, SUSTAINABILITY, HUXLEY, ALDOUS, MORE, THOMAS) (MP)

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